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^\\t  laural  Etxmoo^  Series 

Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


Edited  by  L.  H.  BAILEY 

Bailey:  School-Book  of  Farming. 

Carleton:  The  Small  Grains. 

Chase:  First  Book  of  Grasses. 

B.  M.  Duggar:  The  Physiology  of  Plant 
Production. 

/.  F.  Duggar:  Agriculture  for  Southern 
Schools. 

/.  F.  Duggar:  Southern  Field  Crops. 

Fisk:  The  Book  of  Ice-Cream. 

Gay:  Breeds  of  Live-Stock. 

Gay:  Principles  and  Practice  of  Judging 
Live-Stock. 

Goff:  Principles  of  Plant  Culture. 

Gourley:  Text-Book  of  Pomology. 

Guthrie:  The  Book  of  Butter. 

Harper:  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools. 

Harris  and  Stewart:  The  Principles  of 
Agronomy. 

Hitchcock:  Text-Book  of  Grasses. 

Jeffery:  Text-Book  of  Land  Drainage. 

Jordan:  Feeding  of  Animals,  Revised. 

Livingston:  Field  Crop  Production. 

Lyon:  Soils  and  Fertilizers. 

Lyon,  Fippin  and  Buckman:  Soils;  Their 
Properties  and  Management. 

Mann:  Beginnings  in  Agriculture. 

Montgomery:  The  Corn  Crops. 

Morgan:  Field  Crops  for  the  Cotton- 
Belt. 

Mumford:  The  Breeding  of  Animals. 

Piper:  Forage  Plants  and  their  Culture. 

Sampson:  Effective  Farming. 

Smith:  Agricultural  Meteorology. 

Stiihenrauch,  Wood  and  Booth:  Horticulture 
FOR  Schools. 

Thorn  and  Fisk:  The  Book  of  Cheese. 

Warren:  Elements  of  Agriculture. 

Warren:  Farm  Management. 

Wheeler:  Manures  and  Fertilizers. 

White:  Principles  of  Floriculture. 

Widtsoe:  Principles  of  Irrigation  Prac- 
tice. 


THE 

BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

A  TEXT  ON  THE  NATURE,  MANUFACTURE 
AND  MARKETING  OF  THE  PRODUCT 


BY 


EDWARD    SEWALL   GUTHRIE,    Ph.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    DAIRY    INDUSTRY 

NEW    YORK    STATE    COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 

AT    CORNELL    UNIVERSITY 


REVISED   EDITION 


Neto  gork 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1923 

All  rights  reaerved 


Copyright,   1918  and  1923, 
By  the   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  August,  191 
Revised  edition,  June,  1923. 


Printed  in  the  United  States  of  America 


^' 


^-^ 


vii 


^    TABLE   OF   CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

PAGES 

History  of  Butter 1-6 

Early  history,  1 ;  Creameries,  2  ;  Developments 
in  1890,  3  ;   Production,  4  ;   Exports,  5. 

CHAPTER   II 

Composition  and  Food  Value  of  Butter      .         .  7-17 

The  Composition  of  Butter:  General  composi- 
tion, 6  ;  Fat,  7  ;  Water,  8  ;  Salt,  9  ;  Curd,  10  ; 
Food  Value  of  Butter:  Comparative  prices  of 
butter  and  other  foods,  11;  Growth-promoting 
substances,  12 ;  Comparison  of  butter  and  mar- 
garine, 13. 

CHAPTER    III 

Cleanliness        ........         18-34 

Cleaning  and  Care  of  Utensils :  Flushing  off  the 
milk,  cream,  and  butter,  14 ;  Preparing  the  wash- 
ing solution,  15 ;  Washing,  16 ;  Rinsing  and 
scalding,  17  ;  Methods  of  applying  boiling  water, 
18  ;  Methods  of  applying  steam,  19  ;  Draining  and 
drying,  20  ;  Cleansing  a  musty  churn  and  prepar- 
ing a  new  churn,  21 ;  Cleaning  the  test-ware,  22 ; 
Carefulness  and  Neatness:  Operators,  23  ;  Equip- 
ment, 24 ;  Workmanship,  25 ;  Influence  of 
creamery  surroundings,  26  ;  Influence  of  creamery 
buildings,  27. 

CHAPTER   IV 

Care  of  Milk  and  Cream       .....         35-51 
Bacteria  and  how  carried,  28 ;  Methods  of  Keep- 
ing Bacteria  out  of  Milk :  The  air  of  the  barn,  29  ; 
The  body  of  the  cow,  30 ;    The  utensils,  31.     A 

V 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Method  of  Preventing  the  Growth  of  Bacteria: 
Conditions  of  growth,  32 ;  Reasons  for  cooling 
milk,  33;  Methods  of  cooling  milk,  34;  Tanks, 
35 ;  Effect  of  stirring  milk  during  cooling  in  tanks, 
36  ;   Coolers,  37  ;   The  operator,  38. 

CHAPTER  V 

Cream  Separation 52-83 

Separation  by  the  Force  of  Gravity:  Principle  of 
separation,  39;  Gravity  methods,  40;  Efficiency 
of  different  methods  of  separation,  41.  Separa- 
tion by  Centrifugal  Force :  Intermittent  separation, 
42  ;  Continuous  separation,  43  ;  When  and  where 
the  first  separators  were  made  and  sold,  44  ;  Bowl 
devices,  45  ;  Later  separators,  46.  The  Operation 
of  the  Centrifugal  Separator :  Regulation  of  the  fat 
in  the  cream,  47 ;  The  temperature  of  the  whole 
milk,  48 ;  The  rate  of  speed,  49 ;  Percentage  of 
fat  in  whole  milk,  50 ;  Variations  in  the  quantity 
of  whole  milk  or  in  the  amount  of  liquid  used  for 
flushing,  51 ;  SHme  deposit,  52.  Advantages  of 
the  Centrifugal  Method  of  Cream  Separation  over 
the  Gravity  Methods :  Fewer  utensils,  53  ;  Skimmed- 
milk  fresher  and  warmer,  54;  Fat  more  easily 
handled  ;  Less  loss  of  fat,  56.  Factors  to  be  Con- 
sidered in  Buying  a  Centrifugal  Separator:  Size, 
57 ;  Supplies  for  repairing  purposes,  58 ;  Other 
factors,  59.  The  Location  of  a  Cream  Separator: 
In  the  cow  stable,  60 ;  In  the  kitchen,  61 ;  In  a 
milk-house,  62. 

CHAPTER   VI 

Grading    Milk    and    Cream,    and    Neutralizing 

Acidity 84-89 

Grading  Milk  and  Cream:  History,  63 ;  Practi" 
cable  methods  of  grading,  64.  Neutralizing  Acid- 
ity in  Cream:  History,  65;  Neutralizing  agents,  66; 
Advisibihty  of  neutrahzing  cream,  67. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS  Vll 

CHAPTER   VII 

PAGES 

Pasteurization 90-107 

History,  68  ;  Flavor  improvement,  69  ;  Killing 
pathogenic  micro-organisms  in  cream,  70  ;  Patho- 
genic micro-organisms  in  margarine,  71;  Killing 
pathogenic  micro-organisms  in  skimmed-milk,  72 ; 
Other  effects,  73;  Comparison  of  methods,  74; 
Notes,  75  ;   Cost,  76 ;   Summary,  77. 

CHAPTER   VIII 

Cream  Ripening 108-122 

When  to  use  starter,  78.  Starter:  History,  79; 
Natural  starter,  80  ;  Artificial  starter,  81 ;  Appa- 
ratus, 82  ;  Steps  in  propagation  of  mother  starter, 
83  ;  How  often  to  propagate,  84.  Ripening  Cream 
in  a  Creamery :  Method,  85 ;  Inoculation  of  the 
cream,  86.  Ripening  Cream  on  a  Farm:  Method, 
87.  Ripening  Temperatures:  Proper  tempera- 
ture, 88  ;  Temperature  and  inoculation,  89.  When 
Cream  is  Ripe:  Uniform  ripening,  90;  How  to 
ascertain  and  satisfy  the  demand  of  the  trade,  91 ; 
Cooling  immediately  after  inoculation,  92. 

CHAPTER   IX 

From  Churn  to  Package 123-159 

History  of  Churning :  Simple  churns,  93  ;  Large 
churns,  94.  Factors  in  the  Churning  Quality  of 
Cream:  Temperature,  95;  Richness  of  cream, 
96  ;  Ripeness  of  cream,  97  ;  Condition  of  milk  fat, 
98;  Size  of  milk-fat  globules,  99;  Amount  of 
cream  in  churn,  100 ;  Speed  of  churn,  101 ;  Ab- 
normal micro-organisms,  102;  Steps  in  "from 
churn  to  package, "  103  ;  Selection  of  packages  for 
storage  butter,  104.  Moisture  of  Butter:  Varia- 
tion of  moisture,  105 ;  Incorporation  of  moisture, 
106;  Control  of  amount  of  moisture,  107;  Nat- 
ural amount  of  moisture  in  butter,  108 ;   Cream- 


Vlll 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 


ery-men  should  control  moisture,  109.  Over-run: 
Factors  that  affect  over-run,  110;  Over-run  on 
the  farm  and  in  the  creamery,  111.  Color:  Nat- 
ural color,  112;  Artificial  color,  113;  Mottles, 
114;  Faded  color,  115.  Salt  Blisters :  Cause,  116. 
Packing  Butter :  Wholesale  packages,  117  ;  Retail 
packages,  118;   Printing,  119. 


CHAPTER   X 

Flavors  of  Butter 

Basic  butter  flavor,  120;  Absorbed  flavors,  121  ; 
Developed  flavors,  122 ;  Salted  versus  unsalted 
butter,  123;  Acidity,  124;  Fishy  flavor,  125; 
Metallic  flavor,  126 ;  Rancid  flavor,  127 ;  Effect 
of  pasteurization,  128  ;  Effect  of  the  individuality 
of  the  cow,  129 ;  Effect  of  minor  factors  on  stor- 
age, 130 ;  Effect  of  acidity  on  flavor  of  storage 
butter,  131 ;  Micro-organisms  in  butter,  132 ; 
Enzymes  in  butter,  133. 


160-180 


CHAPTER   XI 

Storage  of  Butter 181-187 

Temperatures,  134;  Nature  of  buildings  and 
business,  135 ;  Cost,  136 ;  Home  storage,  137 ; 
Effect  of  storage  on  price,  138. 


CHAPTER   XII 

Marketing 

Grades  of  Butter:  History  of  grading,  139.  Scor- 
ing: Score-card,  140;  Flavor,  141;  Body,  142; 
Color,  143  ;  Salt,  144  ;  Package,  145.  Exchanges : 
History  and  development,  146.  The  Price :  How- 
reported,  147 ;  Determination  of  price,  148 ; 
Service  of  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture,  149. 
Inspection:  Branding  inspected  butter,  150;  Cost  of 
inspection,  151;  Other  duties  of  the  inspector,  152. 


188-210 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 


IX 


Weighing  Tub  Butter  on  the  Market:  Customary 
methods,  153  ;  Amount  of  butter  in  tub,  154.  The 
Main  Markets  in  the  United  States :  Leading  mar- 
kets, 155 ;  Elgin  market,  156.  Requirements  of 
Different  Markets:  Character  of  butter,  157; 
Wholesale  packages,  158 ;  Retail  packages,  159 ; 
Parcel  post,  160.  Shipping  Butter:  By  rail- 
road, 161 ;  By  water,  162.  Selling  Butter:  Meth- 
ods of  small  creameries,  163 ;  Methods  of  large 
creameries,  164;  Cooperative  selUng,  165.  Dis- 
tributors' Margins:  Wholesaler's  margins,  166; 
Retailer's  margins,  167. 

CHAPTER   XIII 

Whey  Butter 211-215 

Fat  loss  in  whey,  168 ;    Cost  of  manufacture, 
169  ;   Manufacture  of  whey  butter,  170. 

CHAPTER   XIV 

Renovated  and  Ladled  Butter      ....     216-219 
Source  of  raw  material,  171 ;  Renovating  and 
ladling  plants,  172;    Over-run,  173;    Method  of 
manufacturing   renovated  butter,   174;    Method 
of  manufacturing  ladled  butter,   175. 


CHAPTER   XV 

Margarine  ........ 

History,  176;  Method  of  making  and  composi- 
tion; 177;  Legal  control,  178;  Margarine  test, 
179;    Butter  and  margarine,   180. 


220-227 


CHAPTER   XVI 

Definition  of  Terms        .... 
Butter,  181 ;  Butter,  centralizer,  182 
creamery,    183 ;     Butter,     dairy,     184 ; 


Butter, 
Butter- 


228-235 


X  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

dealer,  185 ;  Butter,  gathered  cream,  186 ;  But- 
ter, ladled,  187;  Butter,  ranch,  188;  Butter, 
renovated,  or  process,  189;  Butter,  sweet,  190 
Butter,  sweet  cream,  191 ;  Butter-trier,  192 
Butter,  whey,  193;  Butter,  whole-milk,  194 
Buttermilk,  195 ;  Buttermilk,  artificial  or  com- 
mercial or  cultured,  196 ;  Dairy,  197 ;  Cheese, 
198;  Cheesery  or  cheese  factory,  199;  Central- 
izer,  200 ;  Cream,  201 ;  Creamery,  202 ;  Com- 
mission merchant,  203 ;  Homogenized  milk  and 
cream,  204;  Margarine,  205;  Milk,  206;  Milk- 
fat,  207;  Milk  plant,  208;  Over-run,  209;  Pas- 
teurization, 210;  Patron,  211;  Receiver,  212; 
Skimmed-milk,  213;  Starter,  214;  Sterilization, 
215  ;    Thoroughly  scalding,  216. 

CHAPTER    XVII 

Testing 236-265 

Important  factors  in  Babcock  test,  217 ;  Han- 
dling of  composite  samples,  218 ;  Sampling  sour 
milk  and  cream,  219;  Sampling  frozen  milk  and 
cream,  220 ;  Sampling  whole  milk,  221 ;  Testing 
whole  milk,  222  ;  Sampling  cream,  223  ;  Testing 
cream,  224 ;  Sampling  skimmed-milk  and  butter- 
milk, 225;  Testing  skimmed-milk  and  butter- 
milk, 226 ;  Sampling  butter,  227  ;  Testing  butter, 
228.  Moisture-test  of  Butter:  Sampling,  229; 
Testing,  230.  Salt  Test  of  Butter:  Sampling,  231 ; 
Testing,  232 ;  Notes  on  the  Chemistry  of  the  salt 
test,  233.  Acidify  Test  of  Milk  or  Cream:  Sam- 
pling, 234  ;  Testing,  235  ;  Notes  on  the  chemistry 
of  acidity,  236.  General  Notes  of  Testing:  Sys- 
tem, 237;  Conveniences  for  testing,  238;  Storch  test, 
239. 

Appendix 267-299 

Index 301-307 


LIST   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE 

1.  An  operator  who  is  clean  and  does  his  work  in  an  orderl}^ 

manner        ..... 

2.  An  operator  whose  suit  is  greasy  and  who  is  a  shiftless 

worker         ....... 

3.  Creamery  of  the  Farmei-s'  Cooperative  Creamery  Com 

pany,  Pelican  Rapids,  Minnesota   . 

4.  Floor  plan  of  a  small  one-man  creameij' 

5.  A   creamery  well  equipped   with   Perfection   churns   and 

pasteurizing  vats  .... 

6.  A  plain  neat  creamery,  with  attractive  grounds 

7.  High-grade  milk  is  produced  in  this  barn  by  means  of 

carefulness  ....... 

8.  Interior  view  of  the  barn  shown  in  Fig.  7 

9.  One  method  of  air  control  in  the  creamery 

10.  Contrast  in  number  of  bacteria  in  dry  and  wet  cans 

11.  A  tank  for  cooling  cream        ..... 

12.  End  view  of  tank  shown  in  Fig.  11 

13.  The  shallow-pan  method  of  cream  separation  . 

14.  The  deep-setting  method  of  cream  separation 

15.  The  water-dilution  method  of  cream  separation 

16.  A  comparison  of  the  amount  of  butter  lost  in  the  skimmed 

milk  of  different  methods  of  cream  separation  . 

17.  An  early  cream  separator  experiment 

18.  A  Burmeister  and  Wain  separator 

19.  The  first  Sharpies  factory  separator 

20.  The  first  Sharpies  hand  separator  . 

21.  The  first  Sharpies  tubular  factory  separator 

22.  The  first  Sharpies  tubular  hand  separator 

23.  Modern  Sharpies  tubular  turbine  factory  separator 

24.  The  new  Sharpies  suction-feed  hand  separator 

25.  A  Simplex  hand  separator      .... 


28 

29 

30 
31 

32 
33 

36 
38 
39 
40 
45 
46 
53 
53 
54 

55 
56 
58 
61 

62 
62 
63 
04 
64 
65 


Xll  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


26.  A  Simplex  power  separator 66 

27.  The  original  United  States  separator  ....       66 

28.  The  modern  United  States  separator  ....       67 

29.  DeLaval  power  separator    (large  hollow  bowl   type)       68 

30.  Old  and  new  types  of  DeLaval  hand  separator    .         .       69 

31.  Belt-  and  turbine-driven  type  of  DeLaval  power  separa- 

tors        69 

32.  The  Titan-Alexandra,  the  largest  separator  made         .       70 

33.  A  comparison  of  the  amounts  of  cream  from  one  can  of 

whole  milk  separated  at  different  temperatures     .       71 

34.  A  diagram  representing  percentage  of  fat  in  cream  as 

influenced  by  the  temperature  of  the  whole  milk       73 

35.  A  diagram  representing  percentage  of  fat  in  skimmed- 

milk   as   influenced   by    the    temperature   of    the 
whole  milk 74 

36.  A  diagram  representing  percentage  of  fat  in  cream  as 

influenced  by  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the 
separator  crank  a  minute      .....       75 

37.  A  diagram  representing  percentage  of  fat  in  skimmed- 

milk  as  influenced  by  the  number  of  revolutions  of 

the  separator  crank  a  minute        ....       75 

38.  A  diagram  representing  the  percentage  of  fat  in  cream 

as  influenced  by  the  percentage   of   fat    in   whole 
milk      .........       76 

39.  The  barn  is  not  a  desirable  location  for  a  separator       80 

40.  A  convenient  and  inexpensive  building  in  which  to 

make  farm  butter  .         .         .         .         .         .81 

41.  A  satisfactory  building  in  which  milk  may  be  handled 

in  a  sanitary  manner  and  a  good  location  for  a 
separator  and  churn 82 

42.  Interior  view  of  the  building  shown  in  Fig.  41      .         .       83 

43.  A  few  of  the  many  types  of  hand  churns     .         .         .     124 

44.  Power  churns 125 

45.  Plant  of  the  Beatrice  Creamery  Company,  Detroit,  Mich.     127 

46.  The  churning  process  is  not  complete,  for  the  granules 

are  too  small         ......      138 

47.  The    churning   process    is    complete.      The   granules   are 

about  the  size  of  a  kernel  of  corn   .  .  .  .139 

48.  A  mottled  butter 150 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  XIU 

FIGURE  PAGE 

49.  Butter  with  uniform  color 151 

50.  Acme  and  Lusted  printer.     Single  pound  block  print- 

ers are  on  the  shelf 156 

51.  Friday  butter-cutter    .......  157 

52.  American  butter-cutter 158 

53.  Butter  scales  which  are  graduated  to  read  to  one  thirty- 

second  of  an  ounce        ......  158 

54.  Section  of  butter  storage  room  in  a  modern  fireproof 

cold  storage  warehouse 184 

55.  The  first  three  tubs  are  properly  finished.     The  last  is 

mussy             ........  193 

56.  Cutting  the  butter  with  a  wire  in  finishing  the  tub  194 

57.  Wholesale  price  of  butter  in  the  United  States  from 

1840  to  1922 197 

58.  Weighing  a  uniform  amount  of  butter  in  each  tub       .  202 

59.  Types  of  packages  suitable  for  parcel  post  .         .         .  205 

60.  The  butter  counter  of  a  large  retail  grocery  store         .  209 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

CHAPTER  I 
HISTORY  OF  BUTTER 

An  understanding  of  butter  demands  a  brief  account  of 
its  history.  It  would  be  a  fascinating  adventure  to  explore 
the  subject  in  detail,  but  only  an  outline,  compiled  from 
Hayward,^  is  possible  here.  Even  this  brief  view,  it  is 
hoped,  will  be  sufficient  to  stimulate  the  reader's  interest 
in  the  development  of  human  practices. 

1.  Early  history.  —  Butter  is  one  of  the  oldest  as 
well  as  one  of  the  most  universal  articles  of  diet.  The 
Hindoos  used  it  as  a  food  2000  to  1400  years  B.C.  It 
is  known  that  the  Scythians  and  Greeks  used  butter  in 
450  B.C.  A  little  later  there  is  a  record  of  the  Persians 
making  and  using  it.  In  the  early  centuries  butter  was 
employed  in  many  ways.  The  Hindoos  offered  it  as 
a  sacrifice  in  their  worship.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 
did  not  eat  it,  but  used  it  as  a  remedy  for  injuries  to 
the  skin.  It  was  considered  by  them  that  the  soot  of 
burned  butter  was  unusually  good  for  sore  eyes.  The 
Romans  also  used  it  as  an  ointment  for  the  skin  and  the 
hair.     This  practice  was  common  in  Macedonia,  and  it  is 

1  Hayward,  Harry,  Facts  Concerning  the  History,  Com- 
merce, and  Manufacture  of  Butter,  U.  S.  Dapt.  of  Agri.,  B.A.I., 
Cir.  56,  1904.  For  a  few  of  the  pictures  of  ancient  churns,  see 
Cyclo.  Anier.  Agri.,  Vol.  3,  p.  202-3. 

B  1 


I  THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 

reported  that  in  many  cold  regions  persons  use  butter  as  a 
bath.  There  is  record  of  its  having  been  employed  as  a 
remedy  for  wounded  elephants.  Not  many  years  ago  large 
quantities  of  butter  were  used  in  Scotland  and  in  North 
England  for  smearing  sheep  and  for  lamp  oil,  as  well  as  for 
medicine.  In  Spain,  as  late  as  the  seventeenth  century,  it 
was  found  in  medicine  shops  for  external  application  only. 
In  the  rural  districts  in  Germany,  fresh  unsalted  butter 
has  been  employed  as  a  cooling  salve  for  burns. 

In  some  countries  the  possession  of  butter  was  considered 
to  be  an  indication  of  wealth.  In  both  Chilas  and  Darel 
the  practice  of  storing  it  in  the  ground  still  exists.  Very 
often  butter  thus  stored  is  left  for  many  years.  In  order 
to  identify  the  place  and  also  to  insure  its  not  being 
disturbed,  a  tree  is  often  planted  over  it.  Under  these 
conditions  it  turns  red.  The  wealth  of  the  owner  is  com- 
puted by  the  quantity  of  butter  he  has  stored  in  this  way. 

In  the  early  history,  butter  was  used  as  a  food  by 
comparatively  few  persons.  When  it  was  eaten  the  gen- 
eral practice  was  to  enrich  cooked  foods.  It  was  stored 
in  the  melted  condition  and  was  never  eaten  when  fresh. 
In  fact,  in  comparatively  recent  times,  strong  stored 
butter  was  used  as  an  appetizer.  In  Dardistan  (in  Asia) 
the  peasants  prized  salted  butter-grease  that  had  been 
kept  a  long  time.  They  especially  valued  butter  that 
was  held  over  one  hundred  years. 

Not  much  is  known  concerning  butter  as  a  commercial 
article  in  ancient  times.  It  is  stated  that  in  the  first  cen- 
turies it  was  shipped  from  India  to  ports  of  the  Red  Sea. 
In  the  twelfth  century  Scandinavian  butter  was  exported. 
The  Germans  sent  cargoes  of  wine  to  Bergen,  Norway, 
and  exchanged  them  for  butter  and  dried  fish.  It  seems 
that  the  Scandinavian  king  considered  this  practice  in- 


HISTORY  OF  BUTTER  3 

jurious  to  his  country  and  in  1186  stopped  the  exchange. 
Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century,  among 
the  wares  of  commerce  that  were  enumerated  by  thirty-four 
countries  that  shipped  to  Belgium,  Norway  was  the  only 
one  that  included  butter.  In  the  fourteenth  century  butter 
was  exported  from  Sweden .  Probably  the  making  of  butter 
for  food  was  introduced  into  all  Europe  from  Scandinavia. 

In  1695,  John  Houghton,  an  Englishman,  when  writing 
on  dairying,  speaks  of  the  Irish  rotting  their  butter 
by  burying  it  in  bogs.  His  report  was  confirmed  in  1817 
and  later  by  the  discovery  of  butter  thus  buried 
packed  in  firkins.  This  practice  of  burying  butter  in 
the  peat  bogs  of  Ireland  may  have  been  for  the  purpose 
of  storing  against  a  time  of  need,  or  to  hide  it  from  invaders, 
or  to  ripen  it  for  the  purpose  of  developing  flavor. 

In  the  United  States  butter  has  been  used  as  food 
only.  In  the  early  days  it  was  made  on  the  farms.  As 
time  passed,  some  farmers  assembled  rather  large  herds 
of  cows,  and  as  they  made  more  than  enough  butter  for 
their  own  consumption  they  sold  the  surplus.  The  his- 
tory of  marketing  butter  is  taken  up  in  Chapter  XII ; 
suffice  it  to  say  here  that  it  was  not  possible  for  many 
farmers  to  make  and  sell  butter,  because  they  were  not 
prepared  for  it.  Soon  it  was  found  best  to  band  together 
in  a  suitable  organization  to  make  and  sell  the  product. 
The  outcome  was  the  beginning  of  the  creamery  business. 

2.  Creameries.  —  Probably  the  first  creamery  ^  built 
in   the   United   States   was   in   Campbell   Hall,   Orange 

^  Bull,  William,  Letter  to  the  author.  Mr.  Bull  was  one 
of  the  directors  of  the  Wallkill  Creamery,  which  was  generally 
considered  to  be  the  first  creamery  in  this  country  and  which 
was  near  the  creamery  in  Campbell  Hall.  In  addition  to  his 
own  statement,  he  quoted,  "Portrait  and  Biographical  Record 
of  Orange  Co.,"  1895. 


4  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

County,  New  York,  in  1856.  R.  S.  Woodhull  was  the 
owner  and  George  George  the  first  butter-maker.  Later 
George  became  the  proprietor.  Soon  afterward  many 
creameries  were  organized,  especially  in  the  central 
western  states. 

Most  of  the  creameries  at  the  present  time  are  small 
and  they  serve  only  the  dairy-men  of  the  immediate  com- 
munity. They  are  cooperative  or  stock  companies. 
They  make  whole-milk  butter,  or  gathered-cream  butter, 
or  they  receive  both  whole  milk  and  gathered  cream. 
They  range  in  size  from  an  output  of  less  than  50,000 
pounds  to  approximately  1,000,000  pounds  of  butter  per 
annum. 

The  large  centralized  creamery  does  not  obtain  the 
supply  of  milk-fat  from  one  community  only,  but  it 
reaches  out  to  many  states.  It  is  interesting  to  know 
that  such  creameries  have  prospered  best  in  regions 
where  there  is  not  much  dairying,  for  in  the  strictly 
dairy  districts  there  is  enough  raw  product  to  supply  a 
local  creamery. 

Among  the  many  large  centralizers,  probably  the 
Beatrice  Creamery  Company,  the  Blue  Valley  Creamery 
Company,  the  Fairmont  Creamery  Company,  and  the 
Hanford  Produce  Company  are  the  most  extensive.  The 
largest  makes  approximately  25,000,000  to  30,000,000 
pounds  annually.  Most  of  the  large  centralizers  have 
several  plants  in  which  they  manufacture  butter.  It  is 
said  that  the  Hanford  Produce  Company  of  Sioux  City, 
Iowa,  makes  more  butter  in  one  factory  than  any  other 
creamery  in  the  world.  The  output  of  this  factory  is 
probably  more  than  12,000,000  pounds  of  butter  in  one 
year.  This  has  been  the  development  of  the  creamery 
industry  in  sixty-seven  years  in  this  country. 


HISTORY   OF   BUTTER  5 

3.  Developments  in  1890.  —  The  beginning  of  the 
greatest  period  of  growth  of  dairying  in  general,  as  well 
as  in  the  butter  industry,  began  about  1890.  It  was 
about  this  time  that  the  centrifugal  separator  was  placed 
on  the  market.  The  first  dairy  school  in  the  United 
States  was  organized  at  about  this  year  in  Wisconsin,  at 
the  State  University.  In  this  same  year  S.  M.  Babcock  of 
the  University  of  Wisconsin  gave  to  the  world  a  quick  and 
accurate  method  of  testing  milk  and  other  dairy  products 
for  milk-fat.  Starter  was  also  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
butter-makers  in  1890.  Soon  the  growth  of  the  dairy  in- 
dustry called  for  more  improved  methods,  such  as  better 
moisture  and  salt  control  and  flavor  improvement.  Along 
with  better  methods  came  improved  apparatus,  such  as 
combined  churns  and  workers,  pasteurizers,  starter  cans, 
sanitary  piping,  milk  and  cream  pumps,  and  the  like. 

4.  Production.  —  In  1909  the  total  butter  made  in 
the  United  States  was  1,621,796,475  pounds,  or  an 
increase  over  1899  of  8.6  per  cent.  Of  this  amount, 
994,650,610  pounds  were  made  on  the  farm  and  627,145,865 
pounds  were  creamery  and  whey  butter.  There  was  a 
decrease  of  7.2  per  cent  of  dairy  butter  and  an  increase  of 
48.7  per  cent  in  creamery  butter.  The  increase  in  cream- 
ery and  whey  butter  from  1909  to  1919  was  49.6  per  cent, 
while  dairy  butter  has  decreased  28.8  per  cent.  Table  I 
shows  the  amount  of  butter  made  in  the  leading  dairy  states. 

5.  Exports.  —  The  United  States  is  not  a  heavy  butter 
exporter.  In  fact,  the  country  imports  about  as  much  as 
it  exports.  Table  II  shows  the  amount  of  butter  that 
leaves  various  countries,  and  the  rank  of  the  United  States 
among  the  other  nations  as  an  exporter.  In  reading  this 
table  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  present  war  caused 
an  abnormal  condition  in  the  butter  market  in  1914. 


6  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

Table  I  —  Dairy  Butter  Manxtfactured  in  Different  States 


States 

1899  1 

1909  1 

1919  2 

Texas      .... 

48,244,206 

67,126,804 

49,405,152 

Pennsylvania 

111,358,246 

91,642,332 

38,468,607 

Tennessee    . 

29,299,519 

39,827,906 

37,166,063 

Kentucky    . 

30,631,044 

38,680,616 

34,080,415 

Ohio  .     .     . 

87,638,930 

81,060,383 

30,264,265 

Georgia  . 

15,160,454 

27,324,305 

30,257,153 

Missouri 

46,949,726 

52,367,019 

29,470,763 

Alabama      . 

19,139,321 

Not  given 

28,490,181 

Table  II 


Creamery   Butter   Manufactured 
States 


Different 


States  ^ 

1899  1 

1909  1 

1919  2 

Minnesota  .     .     . 

41,174,469 

88,842,846 

130,785,598 

Iowa  .     . 

77,233,264 

88,582,187 

87,914,633 

Wisconsin 

61,813,502 

103,884,684 

85,054,334 

California 

13,147,137 

37,283,450 

61,795,295 

Ohio  .     . 

8,087,631 

17,491,251 

60,573,159 

Nebraska 

11,726,180 

23,973,162 

60,467,056 

Michigan 

7,820,712 

35,511,760 

45,206,770 

Indiana  . 

3,553,483 

11,712,450 

44,658,534 

Illinois    . 

34,055,312 

24,570,976 

44,621,358 

Missouri 

1,440,616 

10,261,876 

38,411,403 

Kansas   . 

18,196,483 

18,712,568 

35,642,291 

1  U.  S.  13th  Census,  abs.  with  supplement  for  New  York,  p.  349, 
1910. 

2  Pirtle,  T.  R.,  A  Handbook  of  Dairy  Statistics,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  1922. 


CHAPTER   II 

COMPOSITION  AND  FOOD  VALUE  OF  BUTTER 

The  composition  of  butter  is  largely  fat.  It  may  or  may 
not  contain  salt.  A  small  amount  of  the  milk  solids  not 
fat  are  retained  in  the  butter,  and  some  moisture  is  in- 
corporated in  it.     The  food  value  is  largely  in  the  fat. 

THE   COMPOSITION   OF   BUTTER 

6.  General  composition.  —  The  percentage  of  ingredi- 
ents and  constituents  in  butter  is  not  constant.  The 
various  records  showing  the  composition  contain  widely 
differing  figures.  Table  III  on  page  8  shows  a  few 
analyses. 

The  two  American  analyses  are  the  most  valuable,  for 
they  are  very  comprehensive,  being  the  averages  of  many 
samples.  Lee  and  Barnhart  analyzed  574  samples  and 
Thompson,  Shaw,  and  Norton  give  the  results  of  695  de- 
terminations of  composition.  It  should  also  be  noted  that 
these  analyses  are  recent  and  that  the  butter  was  not  made 
in  one  factory  only,  but  in  case  of  Thompson,  Shaw,  and 
Norton's  work,  the  samples  were  obtained  from  many 
creameries  in  eight  states ;  and  in  case  of  Lee  and 
Barnhart's  study,  the  samples  were  taken  from  the 
butter  markets  of  Elgin,  Aurora,  and  Chicago,  as  well 
as  from  many  creameries  in  Illinois. 

7 


8  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

Table  III  —  The  Analyses  of  Butter 


Fat 

Water 

Salt 

Curd 

Nation 

Percent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

86.85 

84.77 
84.34 
85.24 
83.41 
82.89 

11.54 
13.76 
12.05 
12.24 
13.42 
13.75 

1.02 
.09 
2.01 
1.35 
1.87 
2.03 

.59 

1.38 
1.60 
1.17 
1.30 
1.33 

English  (salt)  ^ 
French  (fresh)  ^ 
French  (salt)  i 
German  (salt)  ^ 
Danish  (salt)  ^ 
Swedish  (salt)  i 

84.62 

12.5 

2.00 

0.88 

German  (salt)  2 

83.20 

13.54 

2.25 

0.90 

American  (salt)  ^ 

82.41 

13.90 

2.51 

1.18 

American  (salt)  * 

7.  Fat.  —  The  variation  in  fat  according  to  Thompson, 
Shaw,  and  Norton  ^  is  between  73.49  and  87.39  per  cent. 
The  constitution  of  the  fat  is  important.  Below  are 
figures  taken  in  part  from  Richmond  ^  which  show  the 
nature  of  milk-fat  which  so  largely  comprises  butter. 

The  first  three  acids  in  Table  IV  are  soluble  in  water. 
Caproic  and  lauric  acids  are  probably  partially  soluble. 
It  is  thought  that  the  characteristic  flavors  of  butter 
are  due  largely  to  these  soluble  acids. 

1  Richmond,  H.  D.,  Dairy  Chemistry,  p.  246,  1899. 

2  Fleischmann,  W.,  The  Book  of  the  Dairy,  p.  194,  1896. 

^  Lee,  Carl  E.,  Barnhart,  Jesse  M.,  Composition  of  Market 
Butter,  Univ.  of  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  139,  p.  440,  1909. 

4  Thompson,  S.  C,  Shaw,  R.  H.,  and  Norton,  R.  P.,  The 
Normal  Composition  of  American  Creamery  Butter,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  L,  Bui.  149,  p.  10,  1912. 

^  Thompson,  S.  C,  Shaw,  R.  H.,  and  Norton,  R.  P.,  The 
Normal  Composition  of  American  Creamery  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  149,  p.  18  and  19,  1912. 

6  Richmond,  H.  D.,  Dairy  Chemistry,  p.  35,  1899. 


COMPOSITION   AND   FOOD    VALUE  OF  BUTTER      9 


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10 


THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 


The  fat  in  butter  is  simply  a  collection  of  milk-fat 
globules.  They  vary  in  diameter  from  .0016  to  .01  mm./ 
the  average  being  about  .0058  mm.  This  means  that 
the  average  fat  globule  in  milk  from  which  butter  is  made 
is  so  small  that  it  would  require  approximately  44,000  to 
extend  an  inch.  The  size  of  milk  globules  may  vary  under 
different  conditions.  According  to  Shaw  and  Eckles,^ 
the  relative  size  of  fat  globules  in  milk  from  different 
breeds  vary  between  the  following  figures : 


Breed 

Holstein 
Jersey 


Size  of  Small 
Globules 


42.3" 
91.6 


Size  of  Large 
Globules 

299 
741 


Arbitrary  comparative  number. 


These  investigators  ^  show  that  the  globules  of  the  first 
milk  and  of  strippings  vary  in  size  from  139  to  215,  and  also 
that  from  milking  to  milking  there  is  more  or  less  variation. 

The  following  table  ^  shows  the  coefficients  of  butter  : 


Table  V 


Specific  ! 

Gravity      Melting 


AT 

15.5°  C. 


.926  to 
.940 


Point 


28  to  33 


Solidify- 
ing Point 


20  to  23 


Reichert     Saponifi- 
Meissl     I     cation 
Number    :    Number 


25  to 
30.4 


22.7 


Iodine 
Number 


26  to 
38 


Insoluble 

Fatty 

Acids 

Hehner's 

Number 


86.5  to 
89.8 


1  Fleischmami,  W.,  The  Book  of  the  Dairy,  p.  19,  1896. 

2  Shaw,  R.  H.,  and  Eckles,  C.  H.,  A  Chemical  and  Physical 
Study  of  the  Large  and  Small  Fat  Globules  in  Cow's  Milk,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri.  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  Ill,  p.  15,  1909. 

'  Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Shaw,  R.  H.,  Variations  in  the  Composi- 
tion and  Properties  of  Milk  from  the  Individual  Cow,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agri.  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  157,  p.  16,  1913. 

*  Leach,  A.  E.,  Food  Inspection,  p.  508,  1913. 


COMPOSITION  AND   FOOD   VALUE  OF  BUTTER      11 

8.  Water.  —  According  to  Thompson,  Shaw,  and 
Norton,^  the  average  percentage  of  moisture  in  butter  is 
13.9,  and  the  variation  is  10.13  to  20.65  per  cent.  Usu- 
ally there  are  very  few  impurities  in  water  used  for 
washing  butter,  so  that  the  composition  of  it  may  be 
considered  as  simply  H2O. 

9.  Salt.  —  The  salt-content  of  butter  is  variable. 
Thompson,  Shaw,  and  Norton  ^  show  a  variation  from 
.68  per  cent  in  one  sample  to  5.98  per  cent  salt  in  another 
sample.  The  composition  of  salt  varies.  According  to 
Woll  ^  the  analyses  of  American  salts  are  as  follows  : 


Table  VI 


Highest  in  so- 
dium chlorid 

Lowest   in   so 
dium  chlorid 


Sodium 
Chlorid 


99.18 
97.79 


Calcium 

Sulfate 


.54 
1.48 


Calcium 
Chlorid 


.19 

.28 


Magne- 

siurn 
Chlorid 


.05 

.08 


Insoluble 
Matter 


.05 
.06 


Mois- 
ture 


.01 
.31 


10.  Curd.  —  The  curd  of  modern  butter  contains  very 
little  if  any  albumin,  for  it  is  taken  out  in  the  washing. 
The  curd,  therefore,  is  largely  casein.  x\ccording  to 
Thompson,  Shaw,  and  Norton,^  the  curd-content  of  the 
average  American  creamery  butter  is  1.18  per  cent. 

1  Thompson,  S.  C,  Shaw,  R.  H.,  and  Norton,  R.  P.,  The  Normal 
Composition  of  American  Creamery  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri., 
B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  149,  pp.  10-31,  1912. 

2  Woll,  F.  W.,  A  Study  of  Dairy  Salt,  Univ.  of  Wis.  Agri.  Exp. 
Sta.,  Bui.  74,  p.  14,  1899. 

3  Thompson,  S.  C,  Shaw,  R.  H.,  and  Norton,  R.  P.,  The 
Normal  Composition  of  American  Creamery  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  149,  p.  10,  1912. 


12  THE  BOOK    OF    Bl'TTER 

A  study  of  the  curd  is  essential  in  ascertaining  some 
of  the  possible  causes  of  certain  flavors  and  other 
changes  in  butter.  Van  Slyke  ^  says  that  the  average 
percentages  of  elements  found  in  the  uncombined  protein 
are  as  follows : 

Carbon 53.00% 

Oxygen 22.70% 

Nitrogen 15.70% 

Hydrogen 7.00  7o 

Phosphorus 0.85% 

Sulfur 0.75% 

It  is  generally  considered  that  casein  is  present  in  milk 
as  the  compound  calcium  casein,  containing  in  combina- 
tion about  1.0  per  cent  calcium  oxide.  Osborne  and 
Guest,  as  quoted  by  Van  Slyke,  say :  "Our  present 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  any  protein  is  stated  by 
giving  the  percentages  of  the  different  amino-acids  formed 
by  hydrolysis  of  the  protein.  The  products  of  the  hy- 
drolysis of  casein  have  been  extensively  studied,  and  the 
following  summary  may  be  regarded  as  the  most  reliable 
up  to  the  present  time  "  (formulae  quoted)  : 

Per  Cent 

Glycocoll  or  glycine  (amino-acetic  aeid)  CH. .  NHoCOOH  0.00 
Alanine  (a-amino-propionic  acid)  CH3CHCXH2  .  COOH  1.50 
Valine  (a-araino-iso valeric  acid) 

(CH3)2CH.CH(NH2).COOH  ....  7.20 
Leucine  («-amino-caproic  acid) 

(CH3)2CH.CH2.CH(NHo).COOH  .  .  9.35 
X12O  —  C/H2 

I         I 
Proline  (pyrrolidine-carboxylic  acid)  H2C      CH  .  COOH  .     6.70 


XH 
Phenylalanine  (phenvl-a-amino  propionic  acid) 

C6H5CH2.CH(NH2).COOH 3.20 

1  Van   Slyke,    L.    L.,  Proteins   of  Milk,  Allen's   Commercial 
Organic  Analysis,  p.  119,  1913. 


COMPOSITION   AND   FOOD    VALUE  OF   BUTTER      13 


Glutaminic  acid  (amino-glutaric  acid) 

COOH  .  CHo .  CH2 .  CH(NH2)  .  COOH 
Aspartic  acid  (amino-succinic  acid) 

COOH  .  CH2 .  CH(NH2)  .  COOH  .     . 
Cystine  (amino-thialactic  acid) 

S  -  CH2  -  CH(NH2)  .  COOH  1 

I  •     • 

S  -  CH2  -  CH(NH2).C00HJ 
Serine  fa-amino-/3-hvdroxy-propionic  acid) 

CH20H.CH(NH2).C00H      .     .     . 
Tyrusine    (oxyphenyl-a-amino-propionic  acid) 

C6H4(0H)    CH2CH(NH2).C00H    . 

Oxyproline  (OH.C4H7N.COOH) 

Histidine  (a-amino-iS-imidazol-propionic  acid) 

HC  =  C  .  CH2 .  CH(NH2) .  COOH  ^ 

I  I 

HN       N 

\     II 

cn 

Arginine  (5-guanidino-a-amino-valeric  acid) 
NH 
II 
(HoNjC  .  NH  .  CH2 .  CH2 .  CH2 .  CHCNHo) .  COOH     . 
Lysine  fa,  e,  diamino-n-caproic  acid) 

CH2(NH2) .  CHo .  CH2 .  CH2 .  CHCNHo) .  COOH 
Tryptophane  (indol-amino-propionic  acid) 

— C  .  CH2  .  CH(NHo)  .  COOH 

II 
.C.H 


Per  Cent 
.  15.55 
.     1.39 


0.50 

4.50 
.23 


2.50 


3.81 


5.95 


1.50 


NH 

Diamino-trioxy-dodecanic  acid 

(CiiHi8(OH)3(NH2)2.  COOH  structure  unknown)  .     .  .75 

Ammonia 1-61 

Sulfur 0.76 

Phosphorus 0-85 

Because  of  the  presence  of  water  and  of  acids,  the  casein 
may  hydrolyze  and  consequently  many  of  the  above 
products  are  Ukely  to  be  present  in  butter.  Thus,  con- 
sidering the  complexity  of  the  fat  and  casein,  the  student 
of  butter  finds  a  large  field  in  the  flavors  of  this  product. 


14 


THE  BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


FOOD   VALUE    OF   BUTTER 

The  food  value  of  butter  depends  on  a  number  of  factors, 
such  as  the  individuahty  or  the  age  of  the  consumer, 
as  in  cases  of  children  or  adults,  and  the  general 
quality  of  the  product  which  may  affect  the  appetizing 
properties,  and  the  like.  In  terms  of  calories,  which  is 
the  best  measure  of  the  food  value  of  butter,  one  ounce 
yields  208  calories  of  heat.^ 

11.  Comparative  prices  of  butter  and  other  foods.  — 
From  the  monetary  viewpoint,  the  price  of  butter  and  the 
prices  of  other  foods  must  be  considered  in  food  value  of 
butter.  The  following  table  shows  the  comparative  value  of 
different  foods  when  the  basis  of  comparison  is  the  heat  unit : 

Table  VII  —  Cost  and  Food  Value  of  Various  Foods  ^ 


Tenderloin  steak      .     .     .     .     . 

Corned  beef 

Fresh  lean  veal 

Roast  leg  lamb 

Smoked  ham  (52.3  per  cent  fat) 
Chicken  (fricasseed)     .     .     .     . 

Halibut  steak 

Bluefish 

Boiled  eggs 

Wheat  bread 

Oatmeal 

Whole  wheat  flour 


Cents 

PER 

Pound 


28 
15 
25 
22 
22 
22 
20 
18 
20 


o 

4.5 

4.5 


Heat  Units 
PER  Pound 


1300 

1395 

730 

900 

2485 

855 

565 

670 

765 

1395 

1860 

1675 


Cost  per 
1000  Units 
IN  Cents 


21.5 

10.7 

34.2 

24.4 

8.1 

25.7 

35.2 

27.0 

26.1 

3.7 

2.4 

2.6 


^  Hutchinson,  Robert,  Food  and  the  Principles  of  Dietetics, 
p.  504,  1909. 

2  Troy,  H.  C,  Composition,  Food  Value,  and  Methods  of 
Paying  for  Milk,  The  Cornell  Countryman,  Vol.  13,  No.  8,  p.  656, 
1916. 


COMPOSITION   AND   FOOD    VALUE   OF   BUTTER      15 


Table  VII — ■Continued 


Carbo- 

Cents 

Cost  Per 

Pro- 
tein 

hy- 
drates 

Fat 

Per 
Pound 

Per  Pound 

1000  Units 
in  Cents 

Milk       .     .     . 

3.3 

5.0 

4.0 

3.5 

325 

10.7 

Cheese   . 

25.0 

33.7 

20.0 

1950 

10.2 

Butter    .     .     . 

35.0 

3605 

9.7 

Boiled  potatoes 

at  $.75  a  bu. 

1.25 

440 

2.8 

Dried  beans  at 

$3.00  a  bu.  . 

5.50 

1605 

3.4 

The  above  table  shows  that  butter  is  one  of  the  cheapest 
foods  at  35  cents  a  pound,  and  that  it  cannot  be  considered 
a  luxury  at  45  or  50  cents  a  pound. 

12.  Growth-promoting  substances.  —  Another  feature 
in  relation  to  food  value  of  buttei*  that  has  recently 
been  discovered  is  of  extreme  importance  in  nutrition. 
It  has  been  known  for  many  years  that  certain  foods, 
such  as  milk,  cod-liver  oil  and  eggs,  are  of  special  value 
to  the  growth  of  animals.  The  exact  source  of  this  growth- 
producing  power  has  attracted  the  attention  of  biochem- 
ists, and  as  a  result  there  have  been  important  findings. 
According  to  Osborne  and  Mendel,^  the  growth -promoting 
substance  of  milk  is  found  in  the  butter-fat.  This  is  sub- 
stantiated by  McCollum  and  Davis. ^  It  seems  that  a  few 
other  animal  fats,  such  as  egg-yolk-fat,^*°^^  kidney-fat,^ 

1  Osborne,  T.  B.,  and  Mendel,  L.  B.,  Influence  of  Butter-fat 
on  Growth,  The  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.,  Vol.  16,  pp.  423-432,  1913. 

2  McCollum,  E.  v.,  and  Davis,  Marguerite,  Observations 
on  the  Isolation -of  the  Substance  in  Butter-Fat  Which  Exerts 
a  Stimulating  Influence  on  Growth,  The  Jour.  Biol.  Chem., 
Vol.  19,  p.  248,  1914. 

3  McCollum,  E.  v.,  and  Davis,  Marguerite,  The  Influence  of 
Certain  Vegetable  Fats  on  Growth,  The  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.,  Vol. 
21,  p.  179,  1915. 


16  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

cod-liver  oil  ^  and  the  liquid  part  of  beef-fat,^  contain 
this  "accessory  substance."  Several  vegetable  fats  have 
been  studied.  Of  these  the  substance  vital  to  the  growth 
of  animals  has  been  found  only  in  the  embryo  of  wheat 
seeds,  but  in  quantities  too  small  to  serve  in  the  normal 
growth  of  any  animal. 

The  proper  name  for  this  growth-producing  substance 
has  been  a  puzzling  problem.  INIcCollum  and  Kennedy  ^ 
state  that  Funk  proposed  the  name  "  vitamine  "  for  this 
type  of  substance.  McCollum  and  Kennedy,  however, 
do  not  like  this  term.  In  fact,  they  consider  it  erroneous. 
They  suggested  the  terms  "fat-soluble  A"  and  "water- 
soluble  B  "  for  the  two  classes  of  unknown  substances  con- 
cerned in  inducing  growth.  They  contend  that  these 
terms  have  the  merit  of  not  attributing  extravagant  values 
to  these  bodies,  and  they  differentiate  between  the  sub- 
stances or  groups  of  substances  only  with  respect  to  their 
solubility  relations,  which  is  the  only  basis  of  differentia- 
tion known  at  present. 

This  growth-producing  fat-soluble  factor  does  not  de- 
teriorate when  the  butter  is  held  in  storage  ^  nor  when  it  is 
heated  with  live  steam  for  two  and  one-half  hours,^  which 

1  Osborne,  T.  B.,  and  Mendel,  L.  B.,  The  Influence  of  Cod- 
liver  Oil  and  Some  Other  Fats  on  Growth,  The  Jour.  Biol.  Chem., 
Vol.  17,  p.  401,  19U. 

2  McCollum,  E.  v.,  and  Davis,  Marguerite,  The  Influence  of 
Certain  Vegetable  Fats  on  Growth,  The  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.,  Vol. 
21,  p.  179,  1915. 

3  McCollum,  E.  v.,  and  Kennedy,  C,  The  Dietary  Factors 
Operating  in  the  Production  of  Polyneurites,  The  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.,  Vol.  24,  No.  4,  p.  491,  1916. 

4  Osborne,  T.  B.,  and  Mendel,  L.  B.,  The  Stability  of  the 
Growth-Promoting  Substance  in  Butter  Fat,  The  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.,  Vol.  24,  No.  1,  p.  38,  1915. 

^  Osborne,  T.  B.,  and  Mendel,  L.  B.,  Further  Observations  of 
the  Influence  of  Natural  Fats  upon  Growth,  The  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.,  Vol.  20,  pp.  37  and  384,  1915. 


COMPOSITION   AND   FOOD    VALUE  OF   BUTTER      17 

is  a  higher  temperature  and  more  prolonged  period  of  heat- 
ing than  the  milk-fat  is  subjected  to  during  the  process 
of  manufacture  into  butter.  The  growth-promoting  sub- 
stance seems  to  be  in  greatest  quantity  in  milk-fat.  In 
comparison  with  beef-fat,  the  growth  produced  by  milk- 
fat  was  more  marked  and  more  prolonged.^  In  both,  the 
factor  efficient  in  facilitating  growth  is  found  in  the  fats 
with  low  melting  points. ^  For  full  discussion  see  Mc- 
Collum  2  and  Eddy.^ 

13.  Comparison  of  butter  and  margarine.  —  As  a  food 
for  growth,  butter  is  superior  to  the  best  grades  of  marga- 
rine that  contain  some  beef  and  to  the  margarine  that  con- 
tains no  beef;  for  there  is  no  fat-soluble  A  and  water- 
soluble  B  in  the  margarine  that  contains  no  milk-fat  nor 
beef-fat.  Even  in  the  margarine  that  contains  milk-fat 
or  beef-fat,  the  growth-promoting  substance  is  so  small  that 
its  value  cannot  be  compared  with  that  of  butter.  McCol- 
lum  ^  says  :  "  Experiments  which  we  conducted  a  year  ago 
show  that  3  per  cent  of  butter-fat  furnishes  the  minimum 
supply  of  this  factor  for  normal  growth  in  young  rats.  In 
comparable  experiments  10  per  cent  oleo  was  the  minimum 
which  would  serve  this  purpose."  The  factor  to  which 
McCollum  refers  is  "  fat-soluble  A  substance."  This 
shows  that  butter  contains  more  than  three  times  the 
quantity  of  this  vital  substance  than  is  found  in  margarine. 

^  Osborne,  T.  B.,  and  Mendel,  L.  B.,  Further  Observations  of 
the  Influence  of  Natural  Fats  upon  Growth,  The  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.,  Vol.  20,  pp.  37  and  384,  1915. 

2  McCollum,  E.  v.,  The  Newer  Knowledge  of  Nutrition,  Second 
edition  revised,  1922. 

3  Eddy,  Walter  HoUis,  The  Vitamine  Manual,  1921. 

*  McCollum,  E.  v.,  The  Relative  Nutritive  Value  of  Oleomar- 
garine and  Butter,  Univ.  Wis.,  Jour.  Home  Econ.,  p.  229,  1917. 


CHAPTER    III 

CLEANLINESS 

Cleanuness  is  a  habit.  It  is  not  merely  the  following 
of  certain  set  practices.  It  rests  on  a  rational  procedure, 
comprised  in  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  germs  as  well 
as  an  antipathy  to  what  is  called  dirt.  It  is  much  more 
than  washing  and  scrubbing. 

CLEANING   AND    CARE    OF   UTENSILS 

The  proper  cleaning  of  dairy  utensils,  floors,  walls, 
drains,  and  the  like,  is  essential  to  profitable  dairying. 
Th3  operations  of  cleaning  are  simple,  but  they  must  be 
accompanied  by  a  high  degree  of  thoroughness  and  good 
judgment.  Methods  of  cleaning  are  discussed  in  the 
following  paragraphs.  The  details  must  all  be  given 
close  attention. 

14.  Flushing  off  the  milk,  cream,  and  butter.  —  The 
purpose  of  the  flushing  is  to  discard  as  much  of  the  dross 
as  possible  before  the  utensils  are  put  into  the  washing 
solution.  It  is  expensive  to  remove  this  first  dirt  with 
washing  solution.  Also,  if  the  flushing  is  not  done,  the 
washing  solution  is  very  likely  to  become  too  greasy  and 
sloppy  for  efficient  work.  Cold  or  lukewarm  water  should 
be  employed  when  milk  has  been  in  the  apparatus,  for  the 
heat  of  the  hot  water  precipitates  the  casein  of  the  milk 

18 


CLEANLINESS  19 

that  adheres  to  the  utensils.  Hot  water  may  be  used  to 
flush  off  butter  and  cream  because  it  melts  the  milk-fat, 
in  which  condition  it  is  easily  removed. 

15.  Preparing  the  washing  solution.  —  The  water 
should  be  as  warm  as  the  hands  can  stand.  Into  this 
water  should  be  put  just  enough  washing-powder  to  cut 
the  grease.  Experience  must  be  the  guide  in  determining 
the  amount  of  washing-powder  necessary.  Usually  for 
ordinary  dairy  utensils  the  ratio  should  be  about  one- 
half  ounce  of  washing-powder  to  one  gallon  of  water. 
The  mistake  of  using  too  much  water  is  common.  When 
this  is  done  an  excess  of  powder  is  likely  to  be  used.  This 
is  equally  true  of  the  soap  powders  and  of  the  carbonates, 
as  Wyandotte  cleaner,  Dominion  cleanser,  and  others. 

16.  Washing.  —  A  brush  is  more  satisfactory  for  wash- 
ing than  a  cloth.  In  the  first  place,  on  account  of  the 
handle  of  the  brush,  it  is  possible  to  work  in  warmer 
water  than  with  a  cloth.  It  is  especially  important  to  use 
hot  water  if  the  utensils  are  greasy.  Secondly,  because 
of  the  bristles  of  the  brush,  it  is  possible  to  reach  into  the 
corners  and  crevices  of  the  utensils  ;  whereas,  if  a  cloth  is 
employed,  it  passes  over  these  places,  and  the  particles  of 
dirt  are  not  dislodged.  Thirdly,  the  brushes  are  more 
easily  kept  clean  than  the  cloths,  largely  because  when 
not  in  use  the  air  passes  through  them  more  freely. 

When  cleaning  the  interior  of  a  churn,  care  should  be 
taken  to  remove  all  the  butter.  Sometimes  it  is  nec- 
essary to  put  cold  water  into  the  churn  and  revolve  a  few 
times  to  remove  the  butter  from  behind  the  workers. 
Eight  or  ten  gallons  of  boiling  water  should  be  put  into  the 
churn  when  the  capacity  is  three  or  four  hundred  pounds 
of  butter,  then  about  two  or  three  ounces  of  washing- 
powder  should  be  added.     Now  turn  the  churn  twelve 


20  THE  BOOK   OF    BUTTER 

or  fifteen  revolutions  at  high  speed.  This  speed  causes 
greater  agitation  than  low  speed,  and  consequently  the 
washing  is  more  thorough.  The  gate  should  be  partly 
open  to  permit  escape  of  steam,  for  the  pressure  is  likely 
to  blow  out  some  of  the  cork  packing.  After  washing, 
the  churn  should  be  rinsed  with  boiling  water. 

When  washing  a  pasteurizer,  a  starter-can,  or  a  milk- 
heater,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  allow  the  casein  that  has 
been  precipitated  on  the  sides,  bottoms,  and  coils  or  drum, 
to  soak  for  a  time  in  the  solution.  In  order  that  the  soak- 
ing may  be  effective,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  more  solu- 
tion than  would  otherwise  be  used.  For  proper  soaking 
of  the  casein,  a  combined  pasteurizer  and  ripener  should 
be  about  one-fourth  to  one-third  full  of  washing  solution. 

The  floor  should  be  washed  with  a  fairly  strong  washing 
solution.  This  compound  may  be  made  in  a  vat  and  tlien 
carried  in  pails  and  from  them  distributed  on  the  floor. 
There  is  a  tendency  to  waste  floor-washing  solution.  It 
should  be  poured  on  the  floor  only  as  fast  as  the  man  or 
m  Ml  are  able  to  scrub.  Only  lazy  operators  attempt  to 
clean  without  the  application  of  friction  with  a  scrubbing 
brush.  All  the  washing  solution  should  never  be  thrown 
on  the  floor  before  the  scrubbing  process  is  started,  for 
most  of  it  goes  down  the  drain  and  thus  is  wasted.  It  is 
advisable  to  begin  scrubbing  at  the  highest  point  of  the 
floor,  and  as  the  solution  runs  toward  the  drain  the  scrub- 
bing may  be  continued  in  that  direction. 

Painted  surfaces,  such  as  the  outside  of  the  churns,  vats, 
and  separators,  should  not  be  cleansed  with  a  washing 
solution  on  account  of  removing  the  paint.  On  painted 
surfaces  where  there  is  only  a  little  grease,  scrubbing 
with  a  soft-bristled  brush  and  boiling  water  is  sufficient. 
If   there   is  too  much  dirt   to  wash   off  in  clear  boiling 


CLEANLINESS  21 

water,  ivory  or  a   similar   soap   may   be    applied  with 
a  soft  cloth,  using  care  not  to  loosen  too  much  paint. 

17.  Rinsing  and  scalding.  —  If  the  utensils  are  put 
into  a  vat  of  boiling  water,  the  washing  solution  is  rinsed 
off.  If  boiling  water  is  applied  through  a  hose,  as  in  case 
of  a  vat  or  a  pasteurizer,  the  same  result  is  obtained.  In 
case  steam  is  employed  to  scald,  the  utensils  should  be 
thoroughly  rinsed  before  scalding,  otherwise  white  streaks 
of  the  powder  will  remain  on  the  utensils. 

In  this  step  in  the  process  of  cleaning,  the  most  im- 
portant factor  is  the  killing  of  bacteria.  Thorough 
scalding  of  utensils  is  a  practice  of  good  dairying.  The 
value  of  complete  scalding  is  well  known  in  all  industries 
where  the  presence  or  absence  of  bacterial  life  is  important. 
A  mistake  is  often  made  in  utilizing  water  that  is  not 
sufficiently  hot  to  kill  bacteria.  A  short  experiment  was 
made  on  the  effect  of  warm  water  versus  hot  water  for 
killing  bacteria.  Two  buttermilk  pails  were  cleaned  in 
the  same  way.  One  was  held  in  a  tub  of  water  for  one 
minute  at  a  temperature  of  130°  F.  The  temperature  of 
the  water  in  the  tub  was  then  raised  to  180°  F.  and  the 
other  pail  was  submerged  for  one  minute.  A  bacterio- 
logical study  was  made  later.  It  was  found  that  over  two 
hundred  times  as  many  organisms  were  left  alive  in  the 
first  pail  as  in  the  second.  A  temperature  of  130°  F.,  or  a 
few  degrees  above,  is  not  sufficient  to  destroy  bacteria. 
The  presence  of  steam,  which  may  appear  at  this  time,  is 
not  a  certain  indication  of  the  scalding  temperature. 

The  question  often  arises,  ''  What  is  the  best  tempera- 
ture for  thorough  scalding,  and  how  long  should  a  dairy 
utensil  be  exposed  to  a  given  temperature?  "  Data  are 
found  in  Table  VIII  which  show  that  there  is  very 
little  difference  in  the  number  of  bacteria  killed,  on  the 


22  THE   BOOK   OF    BUTTER 

one  hand,  at  temperatures  ranging  from  160°  F.  to 
200°  F.,  and  in  time  of  exposure  to  these  temperatures 
ranging  from  fifteen  seconds  to  ten  minutes  in  case  of 
hot  water,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  one  tempera- 
ture of  198°  F.  when  steam  was  employed.  The  utensils 
in  the  experiments  were  the  small-top  milking  pails,  and 
the  common  forty-quart  cans.  The  pails  and  cans  were 
first  washed  and  rinsed  in  the  usual  way.  Then  the  pails 
were  rinsed  with  500  cc.  of  sterile  water,  and  this  rinse 
water  was  plated.  The  cans  were  rinsed  with  1000  cc. 
of  sterile  water  and  this  rinse  water  w^as  also  plated. 
The  figures  in  the  table  on  the  opposite  page  show  the 
total  number  of  bacteria  in  the  pails  and  cans  and  not 
the  number  of  organisms  to  the  cubic  centimeter  of  the 
final  collection  water. 

This  table  shows  that  hot  water,  even  at  a  temperature 
of  160°  F.,  for  a  short  exposure  of  fifteen  seconds  is  suffi- 
cient for  all  practical  purposes.  However,  to  be  certain 
of  obtaining  good  results  and  not  to  be  below  the  minimum 
temperature  and  exposure,  it  is  well  to  maintain  a  tempera- 
ture of  180°  F.  for  at  least  thirty  seconds. 

18.  Methods  of  applying  boiling  water.  —  Boiling 
water  may  be  applied  to  dairy  utensils  and  apparatus  in 
one  of  the  following  ways :  1 .  The  water  may  be  heated 
by  steam  in  a  half-barrel  or  in  a  vat.  Then  the  utensils 
may  be  plunged  into  it.  2.  Water  may  be  boiled  in  a 
wash-boiler  on  a  stove  or  in  a  similar  apparatus  of  suf- 
ficient size  to  hold  the  largest  utensil.  3.  These  utensils, 
such  as  dippers,  ladles,  separator  parts,  may  be  placed 
in  a  pail  and  then  the  pail  should  be  filled  with  very  hot 
water  from  the  water  heater  found  in  many  kitchens. 
4.  A  special  hot  water  container  should  be  provided  for 
the  proper  application  of  heat  to  sanitary  piping  if  direct 


CLEANLINESS 


23 


Table  VIII  —  Bacteria  Killed  by  Hot  Water  and  Steam 
AT  Different  Temperatures  and  for  Exposures  of 
Different  Periods  of  Time 


Hot  Water 

Temperature 

160°  F. 

170°  F. 

180°  F. 

200°  F. 

Initial  count   .     . 

223,000 

792,500 

556,200 

96,000 

Aver,     per     cent 
decrease 

Time  exposed  —  15  seconds 

Five  pails  .     .     . 

98.78 

99.61 

99.73 

99.06 

Aver,     per     cent 
decrease 

Time  exposed  —  30  seconds 

Five  pails  .     .     . 

99.50 

99.39 

99.48 

99.74 

Aver,     per     cent 
decrease 

Time  exposed  —  1  minute 

Five  pails  .     .     . 

99.52 

99.89 

99.83            99.74 

Aver,     per     cent 
decrease 

Time  exposed 

—  5  minutes 

Five  pails  .     .     . 

99.68 

99.95 

99.82 

99.58 

Aver,     per     cent 
decrease 

Time  exposed  —  10  minutes 

Three  pails      .     . 

99.66 

99.98 

99.80 

99.31 

(198° 

F.)  Steam  (Time  exposed  1  hour) 

Initial  count  .     . 

128,000,000 

2,200,000 

2,650,000 

6,250,000 

Aver,     per     cent 
decrease 

Exp. 

1           Exp.  2        Exp.  3        Exp.  4 

Five  pails  . 

99.99 

99.96 

99.98           99.99 

24  THE    BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

steam  is  not  employed.     Often  the  piping  is  placed  in  a 
vat  and  then  covered  with  boiling  water.     As  a  result  of 
this  practice,  holes  are  sometimes  punched  through  the 
bottom  of  the  vat.     This  special  container  for  scalding 
sanitary  piping  should  be  constructed  of  tin  and  it  should 
be  just  large  enough  to  hold  the  piping.     After  the  scald- 
ing, one  end  may  be  lifted  and  the  gate  opened   at  the 
opposite  end.     This  is  to  insure  drainage.     Such  a  con- 
tainer  should    be    placed    conveniently    for    scalding   as 
well   as  where   it  will   appear   tidy.      5.    A   churn  with 
a  capacity  of  three  or  four  hundred   pounds  of  butter 
QJ^hould  be  scalded  by  putting  into  it  about  eight  or  ten 
Q|allons  of  boiling  water.      Less  water  may  be  used   in 
ijimaller  churns.     The  churn  should  then  be  revolved  at 
•s^igh  speed  for  two  or  three  minutes.     6.  The  floor,  which 
Qs  usually  the  last  to  be  cleaned,  should  be  flushed  with 
\.^ufficient  hot  water  to  carry  away  the  washing  solution 
.■^imd  to  dry  the  floor.     The  tendency  of  many  creamery- 
men  is  to  use  two  or  three  times  more  water  in  cleaning 
the  floor  than  is  necessary. 

'  19.  Methods  of  applying  steam.  —  Both  steam  and 
*•  water  must  be  confined  in  order  that  the  heat  may  be 
/  utilized  for  scalding.  Of  the  two,  hot  water  is  more 
readily  confined.  Steam  may  be  applied  to  advantage 
jjjjn  a  steam-chest  or  it  may  be  turned  directly  into  such 
^^tensils  as  cans,  pails,  and  the  like. 

20.  Draining  and  drying.  —  A  drying  cloth  should  not 
be  employed,  because  it  smears  bacteria  over  the  scalded 
surface  which  is  almost  free  from  micro-organisms.  The 
heat  in  the  utensils  after  scalding  should  be  sufficient  to 
dry  them  so  that  rust  will  not  form.  In  order  that  the 
moisture  may  be  drained  away  readily,  it  is  best  in  scald- 
ing to  put  the  smaller  utensils  into  larger  ones,  as  for  ex- 


CLEANLINESS  25 

ample,  dippers,  strainers,  and  separator  parts  may  be  put 
into  pails  and  all  submerged  in  boiling  water  at  one  time. 
After  the  utensils  have  been  thoroughly  scalded  and 
drained,  or  perhaps  not  yet  drained,  depending  on  con- 
ditions, they  should  be  put  away.  They  should  be  so 
placed  that  the  room  will  have  a  neat  appearance,  and 
they  should  also  be  put  where  dust  and  flies  cannot 
lodge  on  them.  Many  dairy-men  leave  the  utensils 
in  the  direct  sunlight  and  often  the  dust  and  flies  do 
more  harm  than  the  sun's  rays  do  good.  It  is  needless 
to  put  dairy  utensils  in  the  direct  sunlight  especially  after 
scalding,  and  it  is  a  question  whether  it  ever  pays  to  rely 
much  on  this  treatment  of  killing  bacteria,  since  there 
are  many  days  when  the  sun  does  not  shine.  Again,  it 
is  impossible  to  place  all  the  utensils  so  that  the  sun's  rays 
will  strike  all  surfaces.  If  the  room  is  not  sufficiently 
tight  to  keep  out  the  dust  and  if  there  are  many  flies,  a 
cupboard  should  be  provided. 

It  is  often  difficult  to  dry  cans  properly.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  if  it  is  desired  to  put  the  lids  on  the  cans  in 
order  that  they  may  be  immediately  hauled  or  shipped 
from  the  creamery.  Can-driers  are  convenient  and  es- 
sential in  such  cases.  These  can-driers,  which  are  used 
extensively,  are  constructed  in  such  a  way  that  the  air 
is  forced  over  steam  pipes.  Then  this  air  is  blown 
into  the  cans.  A  can  may  be  dried  very  quickly  in 
this  way.  Drying  and  ventilation  have  a  direct  eflFect 
on  the  improvement  of  the  flavor  of  the  milk  or  cream, 
for  a  damp  can  soon  becomes  very  musty. 

21.  Cleansing  a  musty  churn  and  preparing  a  new 
one.  —  A  churn  used  several  times  in  a  week  does 
not  easily  become  musty  if  it  is  thoroughly  washed 
with  a  washing  solution  and  scalded  after  each  churning. 


26  THE  BOOK   OF    BUTTER 

If  it  does  become  stale,  it  should  be  treated  with  a  dis- 
infectant. The  one  usually  applied  is  a  saturated  solu- 
tion of  lime-water.  Stronger  disinfectants  may  be  em- 
ployed if  care  is  exercised  in  rinsing  the  churn  after  the 
cleaning  process. 

If  a  churn  has  not  been  employed  for  several  weeks  or 
months,  or  if  a  churn  is  new,  it  may  be  soaked  by  putting 
water-tight  utensils,  such  as  pails  and  tubs,  in  the  churn, 
which  may  be  filled  with  boiling  water.  The  steam  from 
the  boiling  water  will  soon  swell  the  wood  and  thus  make 
the  churn  cream-tight.  If  the  pails,  tubs,  and  the  like, 
are  refilled  every  hour  or  so,  a  churn  may  be  soaked 
cream-tight  within  a  day,  even  though  it  was  badly  dried. 
If  the  water  is  put  in  an  unsoaked  churn  before  it  has  been 
steamed,  much  water  is  likely  to  be  wasted  and  several 
days  will  be  required  to  soak  it. 

A  new  churn  should  be  thoroughly  scalded  to  cleanse 
it ;  also  the  heat  of  the  boiling  water  will  open  the  pores  of 
the  w^ood,  thus  freeing  some  of  the  woody  flavor.  It  is  the 
custom  in  some  creameries  to  put  buttermilk  or  skimmed- 
milk  in  a  new  churn  to  absorb  some  of  the  flavor  of  the 
wood.  It  is  wise  to  put  the  milk  in  the  churn  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  occasionally  during  the  day  the  churn  should  be 
revolved  to  bring  the  milk  in  contact  with  all  the  interior 
parts.  A  good  plan  is  to  leave  either  buttermilk  or 
skimmed-milk  in  the  churn  overnight. 

22.  Cleaning  the  test-ware.  —  After  the  tests  have 
been  completed,  the  remaining  portions  of  the  samples  of 
cream  and  butter  should  not  be  thrown  away  and  thus 
wasted.  In  case  of  composite  samples,  when  a  preserv- 
ative is  employed,  it  is  not  possible  to  save  the  sample ; 
however,  in  many  creameries  where  daily  tests  are  made 
no  preservative  is  used.     The  left-over  portions  of  the 


CLEANLINESS  27 

butter  and  cream  samples  may  be  put  into  the  cream- 
ripening  vat  before  the  cream  is  pasteurized. 

In  cleaning  the  sample  bottles,  the  same  kind  of  pro- 
cedure as  described  for  general  cleaning  should  be  fol- 
lowed. As  the  tests  are  read  the  test-bottles  should  be 
placed  in  a  rack  of  the  same  capacity  as  the  Babcock 
centrifuge.  When  the  contents  of  the  test-bottles  are 
emptied,  they  should  be  agitated  to  loosen  the  calcium 
sulfate  deposit  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottles.  The  entire 
case  of  bottles  should  be  submerged  in  a  washing  solution. 
This  solution  should  be  fairly  strong  and  as  hot  as  the  hands 
can  stand.  After  the  bottles  are  filled  with  the  washing 
solution,  a  brush  of  the  proper  size  should  be  employed 
to  loosen  the  fat  in  the  necks  of  the  bottles.  The  next 
step  should  be  to  rinse  the  bottles  in  warm  water.  When 
the  washing  solution  is  made  of  soap,  the  acid  should  be 
flushed  from  the  test-bottles,  for  if  it  remains  in  the 
bottles  it  will  free  the  fatty  acids  of  the  soap.  These 
fatty  acids  are  likely  to  produce  a  greasy  condition.  If  a 
strong  alkali  were  put  in  the  soap  solution  to  neutralize 
the  fatty  acids,  the  grease  would  not  be  formed.  It  is 
usually  easier  to  rinse  the  sulfuric  acid  out  of  the  test- 
bottles  than  to  employ  a  stronger  solution.  When  a 
sodium  carbonate  solution  is  employed,  the  chemical 
reaction  is  different.  In  this  case,  the  solution  may  be 
put  in  the  test-bottles  even  though  there  may  be  a  little 
acid  present,  thus  saving  a  few  minutes.  Then  the 
bottles  should  be  rinsed  with  hot  water. 

CAREFULNESS   AND   NEATNESS 

Nothing  appeals  more  to  a  consumer  than  to  know  that 
the  food  he  eats  is  made  or  prepared  in  a  neat  and  sani- 
tary manner.     When  he  obtains  food  from  a  factory,  such 


28 


THE  BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


as  a  creamery,  he  wants  a  product  that  is  made  under 
careful  methods  and  where  everything  is  kept  in  a  neat 
and  tidy  condition.  When  he  visits  the  plant  he  hopes 
to  find  his  expectations  fully  met.  In  the  following  para- 
graphs are  stated  certain  requirements  that  cannot  be 
overlooked.  In  every  way,  the  place  should  be  orderly. 
23.  Operators.  —  The  operators  must  be  clean  in  every 
way.  They  must  be  washed  clean,  neatly  shaved,  hair 
combed  properly  and  a  suitable  cap  to  prevent  hairs  from 
falling  into  the  product,  and  dressed  in  clean  clothes. 
Which  of  the  men  in  Figs.  1  and  2  has  the  appearance  of 


Fig.  1. 


An  operator  who  is  clean  and  does  his  work  in  an  orderly 
manner. 


doing  the  best  work?  The  one  in  Fig.  1  probably  wears 
a  big  specially  made  apron  when  doing  dirty  work,  such 
as  lifting  cans,  working  in  the  boiler  and  engine  room; 
and  removes  it  when  he  is  working  with  the  milk,  cream, 
and  butter.  He  makes  a  practice  of  not  sitting  on  cans 
that  have    just   come   from   the  route,  truck,  receiving 


CLEANLINESS  29 

platform,  and  the  like.  He  does  not  wipe  his  hands  on 
his  clothes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  man  in  Fig.  2 
violates  all  these  precautions. 


Fig.  2.  —  An  operator  whose  suit  is  greasy  and  who  is  a  shiftless  worker. 

24.  Equipment.  —  Tables,  shelves,  and  cabinets  on 
which  and  in  which  to  keep  utensils,  apparatus,  and  sup- 
plies must  be  provided  and  used.  If  it  is  the  practice  of 
the  creamery  operator  to  dip  his  floor  brush  in  the  pail 
when  washing,  instead  of  pouring  the  solution  or  water 
on  the  floor,  a  special  pail  should  be  provided  for  that 
purpose.  Can  tops,  dippers,  strainers,  churn  tops, 
separator  parts,  starter-can  agitator  and  top,  butter  tub 
covers,  should  never  touch  the  floor.  It  should  not  be 
necessary  to  step  over  a  dairy  product  container  such  as 
an  open  conveyer  spout  of  milk  leading  from  the  weigh- 
can  to  the  receiving- vat.  Figs.  3  and  4  show  a  creamery 
in  which  butter  is  easily  handled  in  a  sanitary  way,  for 
it  is  well  supplied  with  up-to-date  equipment.  The 
operator  is  careful  and  neat.     Fig.  5  calls  attention  to  a 


30 


THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 


CLEANLINESS 


31 


creamery  in  decided  contrast  to  the  one  in  Fig.  3.  It  is 
well  to  have  a  heavily  built  low  table  on  which  to  pack 
butter  in  order  that  none  of  it  may  come  in  contact  with 


™J 


BOILER     ROOn 


^a^      cm 


'"/''■  j{">»"'>"""'>''"-'"  """""/'""■ 


PlATFORMI^ 


.,.VL 


\  E 

— ;  u 


WORKROOM 


iRCrRIGElRATOR 

J  "A.N 


CNTRANCt 


wwwwwj}w/wwwwww;mwww. 


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Fig.  4.  —  Floor  plan  of  a  small  one-man  creamery.  The  boiler  room 
is  convenient  to  both  the  platform  and  the  main  floor.  There  is 
sufficient  space  for  handling  cans  when  shipping  milk  or  cream. 

the  floor.  This  table  may  be  employed  for  other  things, 
such  as  holding  a  churn  cover  or  other  large  piece  of 
apparatus. 

25.  Workmanship.  —  A  carefully  and  neatly  finished 
package  is  usually  indicative  of  thoughtful  and  neat  work- 
manship in  making  the  product,  and  in  the  quality  of  the 
goods.  A  careful  operator  will  alw^ays  use  a  spoon  or 
other  utensil  to  obtain  milk  or  cream  to  taste.  He  will 
use  a  ladle  or  a  trier  to  secure  a  portion  of  butter  to  ex- 
amine. In  neither  case  will  he  stick  his  finger  into  the 
product  and  then  lick  it.  After  taking  a  temperature,  a 
careful  dairy-man  or  creamery-man  will  wash  the  milk 
or  cream  from  the  thermometer  and  then  he  w^ill  flush  it 
with  boiling  water  and  place  it  in  a  clean  rack  provided 
for  that  purpose.     He  will  not  lick  it  off  and  then  without 


32 


THE   BOOK  OF   BUTTER 


CLEANLINESS  33 

further  treatment  lay  it  on  a  ripener  or  a  shelf  which  is  not 
perfectly  clean  and  where  it  is  likely  to  be  broken. 

26.  Influence  of  creamery  surroundings.  —  The  sur- 
roundings of  a  creamery,  whether  high  weeds,  muddy  or 
dusty  roads,  or  an  attractive  lawn  and  graveled  roads,  have 
a  distinct  effect  on  the  grade  of  workmanship  in  the 
establishment.     Pride  and  interest  are  features  that  must 


J 

k 

-Jli 

■1 

Bh^hi.      iKBOLiHllk 

m. 

MR 

BS 

^^B 

Fig.  6.  —  A  plain  neat  creamery,  with  attractive  grounds. 

not  be  forgotten  in  this  relation.  They  cannot  be  en- 
gendered within  the  surroundings  of  many  creameries. 
Conditions  such  as  are  seen  in  Fig.  6  have  a  good  influ- 
ence on  operators  and  patrons.  They  also  appeal  to  the 
consumer  who  has  an  opportunity  to  see  them. 

27.  Influence  of  creamery  buildings.  —  Paint  properly 
applied  has  an  important  place  in  improving  the  appear- 
ance of  creamery  buildings.  Light-colored  paint  is  the 
universal  shade  for  dairy  apparatus  and  buildings.  Dirt 
is  easil}^  seen  on  a  white  surface ;  therefore,  a  light- 
colored  object  is  more  likely  to  be  kept  clean  than  a 
dark  one.     When  a  light  color  is  used  in  a  dark  corner, 

D 


34  THE    BOOK    OF   BUTTER 

the  light  is  reflected  so  that  spots  on  darker  colored  sur- 
faces are  more  readily  seen.  Some  of  the  equipment 
should  be  painted  a  dark  color,  as  for  example  the 
gearing  of  machinery,  a  square  place  around  a  door 
knob  where  hands  touch  the  door,  and  the  like.  Often 
the  application  of  the  proper  paint  will  make  it  pos- 
sible to  clean  more  easily.  Creamery  buildings  should 
be  kept  in  good  repair,  not  only  to  insure  longer  life,  but 
to  encourage  carefulness  on  the  part  of  the  persons  who 
work  in  them. 

As  a  whole,  the  milk  establishments  of  the  country 
are  not  only  unattractive  but  repelling.  In  no  direction 
is  there  greater  need  for  reform.  The  cases  in  which 
the  buildings  and  the  premises  have  been  touched  with 
pride  are  so  few  that  they  always  arouse  comment. 

Nowhere  is  the  proper  atmosphere  control  more  essen- 
tial than  in  the  creamer3\  When  the  doors  are  left  open 
in  the  common  pasteurizing  vat  during  the  heating  process, 
moisture  is  said  to  pass  into  the  surrounding  air  at  the 
rate  of  over  ten  gallons  an  hour.  If  provision  is  not  made 
to  carr}'  this  water  from  the  rooms,  the  life  and  appear- 
ance of  the  equipment  and  building,  as  well  as  the  health 
of  the  operator,  is  endangered.  Fig.  9  shows  one  method 
of  air  control. 


CHAPTER  IV 

CARE  OF  MILK  AND   CREAM 

The  making  of  butter  does  not  begin  with  the  churn- 
ing process,  but  as  soon  as  the  milk  leaves  the  udder. 
It  is  impossible  to  make  fancy  butter  from  a  poor  raw 
product  because  of  the  presence  of  certain  bacteria  and 
the  by-products  of  their  growth. 

28.  Bacteria  and  how  carried.  —  In  the  manufacture 
of  butter,  micro-organisms  play  such  an  important  part 
that  the  question  may  well  be  asked :  What  are  bacteria 
and  how  do  they  move  from  one  place  to  another? 
Bacteria  are  the  lowest  or  the  simplest  forms  of  plant  life. 
They  do  not  fly  or  crawl  as  insects,  but  are  transported  by 
attaching  themselves  to  objects  that  are  moved  in  different 
ways  from  one  position  to  another  ;  as,  for  example,  they 
may  lodge  on  particles  of  dust,  feed,  bedding,  hairs,  flies, 
cobwebs,  dairy  utensils  and  the  milker.  Some  of  these  ob- 
jects are  carried  by  the  wind,  or  by  undue  circulation  of  air. 
Some  may  drop  from  a  near-by  surface.  Water  may  carry 
them.  There  are  many  ways  by  which  bacteria  may  be 
carried  into  milk  and  other  dairy  products.  In  dairy  work, 
it  is  important  to  eliminate  these  carriers.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  simple  and  inexpensive  methods. 

METHODS   OF   KEEPING   BACTERIA    OUT    OF   MILK 

29.  The  air  of  the  barn.  —  The  ceiling  of  the  barn 
should  be  so  constructed  that  nothing  will  sift  through 

35 


36 


THE  BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


CARE  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM  37 

it.  The  number  of  places  where  dust  might  collect  on 
the  walls,  stanchions,  and  the  like,  should  be  minimized. 
The  floors  should  be  tight  and  easily  drained  and  cleaned. 
In  order  that  clean  milk  may  be  produced,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  barn  be  up-to-date  in  every  detail.  Many 
old  barns  may  be  renovated  satisfactorily.  Fig.  7  shows 
the  exterior  of  a  barn  where  milk  equal  in  quality  to  "  cer- 
tified milk"  is  produced.  The  average  number  of  bacteria 
for  one  year  was  5,133  micro-organiems  to  a  cubic  centi- 
meter in  the  morning's  milk  and  5,000  bacteria  to  a  cubic 
centimeter  in  the  night's  milk.  The  interior  of  this  barn 
is  seen  in  Fig.  8. 

30.  The  body  of  the  cow  has  on  it  more  or  less  dirt 
and  dross.  Therefore,  the  udder  and  the  flank  should 
be  carefully  wiped  and  in  some  cases  they  should  be 
thoroughly  washed. 

The  small-top  milking  pail  also  is  effective  in  keeping 
many  bacteria  of  the  air  and  from  the  cow's  body  from 
falling  into  the  milk.  The  type  of  milking  pail  now  in 
general  use  has  about  two-thirds  or  three-fourths  of  the 
top  covered. 

31.  The  utensils.  —  The  condition  of  the  utensils, 
bacteriologically,  is  the  most  important  consideration  in 
obtaining  milk  of  good  quality.  Prucha,  Weeter  and 
Chambers  maintain  that  in  an  attempt  to  produce  milk 
with  low  germ  content  the  importance  of  properly  steam- 
ing and  drying  the  utensils  has  not  been  realized.  In  a 
previous  publication  Prucha  and  Weeter  ^  said  that  even 
under  wide  extremes  in  barn  conditions  it  is  possible  to 

1  Prucha,  M.  J.,  Weeter,  H.  M.,  and  Chambers,  W.  H.,  Germ 
Content  of  Milk,  Univ.  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  204,  p.  257,  1918. 

2  Prucha,  M.  J.,  and  Weeter,  H.  M.,  Germ  Content  of  Milk, 
Univ.  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  199,  p.  51,  1917. 


38 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


CARE  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM 


39 


produce  milk  with  a  germ-content  of  less  than  10,000 
bacteria  to  a  cubic  centimeter  when  the  utensils  are 
properly  prepared. 


Fig.  9.  —  One  method  of  air  control  in  the  creamery.  A,  the  trap  in 
the  central  shaft  opened  and  the  fan  forcing  a  rapid  circulation.  B, 
the  normal  circulation  of  air  when  a  forced  draft  is  not  necessary. 

A  METHOD  OF  PREVENTING  THE  GROWTH  OF  BACTERIA 

What  factors  are  important  in  the  growth  of  bacteria 
and  what  may  be  done  to  prevent  the  development  of 
those  that  gain  access  to  milk? 

32.  Conditions  of  growth.  —  Like  other  forms  of  plant 
life,  bacteria  require  moisture,  warmth,  and  food.  Unlike 
most  plants,  they  do  not  require  sunlight.  In  fact,  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  very  injurious  to  them.  To 
prevent  the  development  of  bacteria,  it  is  necessary  either 
to  kill  them  by  pasteurization  or  in  some  cases  by  steriliza- 
tion; or  to  change  one  of  the  essential  requirements  of 
their  growth.  Prucha,  Weeter  and  Chambers  ^  report  that 
the  fifty  cans  which  were  washed,  steamed  and  held  for 
thirty  hours  uncovered  and  inverted  on  a  rack  were  dry 
and  free  from  bad  odor.     If  the  bacteria  in  these  cans 

1  Prucha,  M.  J.,  Weeter,  H.  M.,  and  Chambers,  W.  H.,  Germ 
Content  of  Milk,  Univ.  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  204,  p.  226,  1918. 


40  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

were  added  to  400  gallons  of  milk,  the  germ-content  of 
the  milk  would  be  eight  bacteria  to  a  cubic  centimeter. 
The  fifty  cans  washed,  steamed  and  held  for  thirty  hours 

Dry  Wet 


Fig.  10.  —  Contrast  in  numbers  of  bacteria  in  dry  and  wet  cans;  1  to  224. 

with  the  lids  on  were  still  wet  and  most  of  them  had  a 
pronounced  odor.  If  the  bacteria  of  these  cans  were 
added  to  400  gallons  of  milk,  the  increase  in  bacteria 
would  be  1,816  micro-organisms  to  a  cubic  centimeter. 

33.  Reasons  for  cooling  milk.  —  The  principle  of 
cooling  applies  in  the  same  way  to  cream  as  to  milk. 
Regarding  the  cooling  of  milk  Stocking  ^  says : 

''After  we  have  taken  as  much  care  in  producing  the 
milk  as  we  can,  there  will  still  be  some  bacteria  in  it, 
and  these  should  be  prevented  from  growing  by  imme- 
diately cooling  the  milk  to  such  a  degree  that  their  develop- 
ment will  be  checked.  The  more  quickly  milk  can  be 
cooled  to  a  temperature  of  fifty  degrees  or  lower,  the 
slower  will  be  the  development  of  the  bacteria.  The  effect 
of  temperature  upon  milk  is  strikingly  shown  by  the 

^  Stocking,  W.  A.,  Jr.,  Problems  of  the  Milk  Producer,  Naw 
York  State  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Cir.  10,  p.  62,  1910. 


CARE   OF   MILK   AND   CREAM  41 

results  obtained  from  a  sample  of  milk  which  was  thor- 
oughly mixed  and  then  divided  into  six  equal  parts. 
The  six  bottles  were  then  placed  in  water  at  different 
temperatures  for  twelve  hours,  at  which  time  the  germ- 
content  of  each  lot  was  determined.  The  six  bottles 
were  then  all  placed  together  in  a  temperature  of  seventy 
degrees  and  allowed  to  remain  until  they  curdled.  As 
each  sample  curdled,  the  time  was  recorded.  The 
difference  in  the  germ-content  and  the  keeping  time  is  the 
result  of  the  difference  in  temperature  for  a  period  of 
twelve  hours  only,  and  shows  what  may  easily  happen  in 
milk  which  is  allowed  to  stand  over  night  without  thor- 
ough cooling. 

"Effect  of  Different  Temperatures  for  Twelve  Hours 
ON  the  Growth  of  Bacteria  and  on  the  Keeping 
Quality  of  Milk 

I  II 

Kept  at  45  degrees  Kept  at  50  degrees 

Number  of  bacteria,  9,300.  Number  of  bacteria,  18,000 

Curdled  in  75  hours  Curdled  in  72  hours 

III  IV 

Kept  at  55  degrees  Kept  at  60  degrees 

Number  of  bacteria,  38,000  Number  of  bacteria,  453,000 

Curdled  in  49  hours  Curdled  in  43  hours 

V  VI 

Kept  at  70  degrees  Kept  at  80  degrees 

Number  of  bacteria,  8,800,000  Number  of  bacteria,  55,300,000 

Curdled  in  32  hours  Curdled  in  28  hours  " 

According   to   Ross   and    Mclnerney,^    '*  Most   germs 
thrive  best  at  a  temperature  of  about  98°  F.,  or  36.6°  C, 

1  Ross,  H.  E.,  and  Mclnerney,  T.  J.,  Cooling  Milk,  Cornell 
Reading  Course  Lesson,  No.  102,  1915. 


42 


THE   BOOK    OF   BUTTER 


and  this  is  very  nearly  the  temperature  of  freshly  drawn 
milk.  Milk  should  be  cooled  to  at  least  50°  F.  as  soon  as 
possible  after  it  is  drawn ;  it  is  still  better  to  cool  it  to  a 
temperature  as  low  as  40°  F.  While  it  is  true  that  many 
of  the  bacteria  commonly  found  in  milk  either  do  not  de- 
velop at  all  or  at  least  develop  very  slowly  at  50°  F.,  still 
there  are  some  forms  that  grow  with  comparative  rapidity 
at  this  temperature.  For  this  reason  the  colder  the  milk 
is  kept,  the  better  it  will  be,  provided  it  is  not  frozen, 

"Table  IX  —  Comparison  of  Bacteria  Count  of  Samples 
OF  Milk  Held  at  DxFferent  Temperatures  for  One 
Hour 


Increase  in 

Bacteria 

Bacteria 

Bacteria 

Bacteria 

PER     C.C.     op 

Sample 

OF  Pounds 
Milk  Used 

PER    C.C.     IN 

Original 
Milk 

per    C.C.    IN 

Milk  Held 

AT  50°  F. 

per    C.C      IN 

]MiLK  Held 
AT  90°  F. 

Milk  Held 
AT  90°  F. 

OVER  Milk 

Held  at 

50°  F. 

1 

40 

747,750 

727,750 

2,499,500 

1,771,750 

2 

43 

308,900 

566,250 

1,487,750 

921,500 

3 

72 

537,500 

420,000 

7,625,000 

7,205,000 

4 

85 

575,000 

470,000 

6,000,000 

5,530,000 

5 

85 

179,375 

158,125 

4,920,000 

4,761,875 

6 

85 

223,125 

282,500 

760,000 

477,500 

7 

80 

31,875 

65,000 

1,675,000 

102,500 

8 

64 

47,750 

110,000 

355,000 

245,000 

9 

85 

20,625 

29,375 

37,000 

7,625 

10 

75 

86,875 

141,875 

1,350,000 

1,208,125 

"  A  comparison  of  the  bacteria  count  of  various  samples 
of  milk  is  given  in  Table  IX.  Each  sample  was  divided 
into  two  parts,  and  one  part  was  held  at  a  temperature  of 
50°  F.  for  one  hour,  the  other  at  90°  F.  for  the  same  time. 
In  each  case  the  samples  were  thoroughly  mixed  by  pour- 
ing the  milk  several  times  from  one  can  to  another,  before 


CARE   OF    MILK    AND    CREAM 


43 


they  were  held  at  their  respective  temperatures  for  the 
period  stated.  The  table  indicates  that  there  was  a  large 
increase  of  bacteria,  due  to  keeping  milk  at  the  higher 
temperature,  and  also  that  those  samples  of  milk  that  had 
high  initial  bacteria  count  had  a  correspondingly  high 
count  at  the  end  of  an  hour.  This  point  is  of  great  practical 
importance,  and  shows  the  necessity  of  producing  clean 
milk  even  though  it  is  to  be  kept  cold  or  is  to  be  pasteur- 
ized. If  conditions  favorable  to  the  growth  of  bacteria 
arise,  a  large  initial  count  means  that  the  bacteria  have  a 
proportionately  better  chance  to  multiply. 

"  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  four  of  the  ten  tests 
here  recorded  the  bacteria  count  of  the  milk,  after  it  has 
been  held  for  one  hour  at  50°  F.,  was  less  than  the  initial 
bacteria  count.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
low  temperature  was  unfavorable  to  the  particular  species 
of  germs  that  happened  to  be  present. 


Table  X — Effect  of  High  Temperature  on  Milk  Having 
Small  Initial  Bacteria  Count 


Tempera- 

Number of 

Bacteria 

Increase  op  Bacteria 

Number 

OF 

Pounds 
Milk 
Used 

ture  (De- 
grees Fah- 
renheit) 
AT  Which 
Milk  Was 
Held  for 

PER 

c.c. 

PER 

c.c 

Sample 

At  Begin- 
ning of  the 
2-Hours- 

At  End  of 

2-Hours- 

Period 

Number 

Percentage 

2  Hours 

Period 

1 

80 

85° 

560 

4,000 

3,440 

614.2 

2 

80 

89° 

2,862 

6,335 

3,473 

121.3 

3 

86 

80° 

2,967 

15,925 

13,958 

470.4 

4 

86 

85° 

2,612 

24,450 

21,838 

836.0 

5 

50 

85° 

3,062 

64,700 

61,638 

2,012.9 

6 

50 

85° 

362 

2,025 

1,663 

459.3 

7 

60 

88° 

2,675 

28,662 

25,987 

971.4 

8 

70 

84° 

500 

9,800 

9,300 

1,860.0 

44  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

*'  The  importance  of  cooling  milk  and  of  keeping  it  cold 
is  still  further  emphasized  in  Table  X  which  sets  forth 
the  results  of  keeping,  at  a  high  temperature,  milk  that 
had  a  low  initial  bacteria  count.  In  each  case  the  milk 
was  held  at  a  high  temperature  for  a  period  of  two  hours, 
and  it  will  be  noted  that  in  every  case  there  was  a  large 
increase  in  germ-content." 

It  would  seem  from  the  figures  given  by  Stocking,  and 
by  Ross  and  Mclnerney,  that  there  is  no  one  thing  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  bacteria  in  milk  more  important 
than  cooling,  and  the  maintenance  of  a  low  tempera- 
ture. 

34.  Methods  of  cooling  milk.^  —  "  ]\Iilk  becomes  cool, 
of  course,  when  it  gives  up  its  heat  to  some  substance 
colder  than  itself,  and  in  order  to  have  a  rapid  exchange 
of  temperatures  between  two  substances  it  is  necessary 
that  they  have  approximately  the  same  density.  On 
account  of  the  great  difference  in  density  between  air  and 
milk,  the  latter  will  cool  very  slowly  in  air  even  though  the 
temperature  of  the  air  is  rather  low.  If  milk  is  allowed  to 
cool  by  standing  in  a  cold  atmosphere,  it  will  do  so  un- 
evenly, and  by  the  time  the  milk  in  the  center  of  the  can 
is  cooled,  that  part  near  the  walls  may  be  frozen."  This 
factor  must  not  be  overlooked. 

35.  Tanks.  —  Ross  and  Mclnerney  ^  write  :  '*  On 
farms  milk  is  most  often  cooled  by  setting  the  cans  con- 
taining it  in  a  tank  of  w^ater.  The  most  convenient  and 
in  the  long  run  the  cheapest  kind  of  tank  for  this  purpose 
is  made  of  cement  and  sunk  in  the  floor  so  that  only  about 
twelve  inches  of  the  sides  extend  above  it.  This  arrange- 
ment obviates  lifting  the  cans  to  any  great  height  and 

1  Ross,  H.  E.,  and  Mclnerney.  T.  J.,  Cooling  Milk,  Cornell 
Reading  Course  Lesson  Xo.  102,  1915. 


CARE   OF    MILK   AND    CREAM 


45 


prevents  dirt  from  washing  into  the  tank.  The  top  of  the 
walls  of  the  tank  should  be  faced  with  strap  iron  to  prevent 
the  cans  cracking  the  cement  as  they  are  lifted  in  and  out. 
Some  outlet  should  be  provided  in  the  bottom  of  the  tank 
so  that  it  can  be  easily  and  thoroughly  cleaned  as  often 
as  may  be  necessary.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent 
milk  from  spilling  into  a  cooling  tank  of  this  sort.,  and 
unless  this  is  cleaned  out,  the  tank  soon  becomes  unfit  for 
use  from  a  sanitary  standpoint.     Outlets  should  be  made 


COOLING         TANH 


Fig.  11.  —  A  tank  for  cooling  cream. 

at  the  top  of  the  tank  in  order  to  carry  off  surplus  water 
and  to  prevent  the  cans  from  being  flooded." 

A  heavy  wooden  top  should  be  employed  to  keep  out  the 
warm  air. 

The  tank  shown  in  Figs.  11  and  12  is  convenient. 
Notice  how  the  water  is  guided  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank 
when  it  enters,  and  that  the  outlet  is  at  the  top.  This 
method  of  delivering  the  inflowing  water  at  the  bottom 
produces  a  much  more  efficient  cooling  process  than  when 
the  water  simply  flows  into  the  top  of  the  tank. 


46 


THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 


36.    Effect  of  stirring  milk  during  cooling  in  tanks. — 
According  to  Ross  and  Mclneniey,^  ''  The  cooling  pro- 
cess, in  order  to  be  thorough,  requires  more  than  setting 
the  can  of  milk  in  a  tank  of  ice  water ;  the  milk  must  be 
stirred  frequently.     If  the  milk  is  not  stirred,  that  which 
is  near  the  walls  of  the  can  will  become  cold,  while  that 
in  the  center  of  the  can  will,  for  a 
long  time,  maintain  a  high  temper- 
ature favorable  to   the    growth  of 
bacteria.     Results  showing  the  rate 
of  cooling  when  milk  was  and  was 
not  stirred  during  the  cooling  pro- 
cess are  given  in  Table  XI.     In  each 
experiment  in  Table  XI  can  1  was 
stirred  at  intervals  of  five  minutes, 
and  the  temperature  recorded  ;  can  2 
was  stirred  at  intervals  of  ten  min- 
utes, and  the  temperature  recorded  ; 
can  3  was  not  stirred  at  all,  but  the 
temperature  of  the  milk  in  the  center 
of  the  can  was  recorded  at  intervals 
of  ten  minutes ;  can  4  was  stirred 
continuously,  and  the  temperature 
recorded  at  intervals  of  ten  minutes. 
*'  In  each  experiment,  with  the  exception  of  one,  recorded 
in  Table  XI  the  milk  in  can  4,  which  was  stirred  con- 
tinuously, registered  the  lowest  temperature  at  the  end 
of  an  hour ;    while  the  milk  in  cans  1  and  2,  which  was 
stirred  every  five  minutes  and  every  ten  minutes,  respec- 
tively, registered  about  the  same  final  temperature  but 
not  so  low  as  that  obtained  in  can  4.     The  milk  in  can  3, 


Fig.  12. —  End  view  of 
tank  shown  in  Fig.  11. 
The  water  space  under 
the  can  aids  in  rapid 
cooling. 


^  Ross,  H.  E.,  and  Mclnerney,  T.  J. 
Reading  Course  Lesson  No.  102,  1915. 


Cooling  Milk,  Cornell 


CARE   OF   MILK  AND   CREAM 


47 


which  was  not  stirred  at  all  during  the  hour,  had  a  higher 
temperature  than  that  in  the  three  other  cans.  This  was 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  milk  in  the  center  of  the  can  was 
not  near  enough  to  the  cooling  mixture ;  however,  when 
the  milk  in  this  can  was  stirred  at  the  end  of  the  hour,  the 
mixed  milk  had  a  temperature  that  compared  very 
favorably  with  that  of  the  milk  in  cans  1  and  2.  This 
would  indicate  that  the  milk  near  the  walls  of  the  can 
had  a  low  temperature. 

"Table  XI  —  Effect  of  Stirring  Milk  at  Different  Inter- 
vals OF  Time  on  Rapidity  of  Cooling 


Q 

Temperature  of  ]Mi 

LK  (Degrees  Fahrenheit)  at 

Ed 
S 

z 

It 

9.00 

9.10 

9.20 

9.30 

9.40 

9.50 

10.00 

^ 

< 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

1 

1 

322 

95° 

70° 

60° 

55° 

51° 

48° 

45° 

2 

322 

95° 

73° 

62° 

56° 

52° 

48° 

46° 

3 

322 

95° 

85° 

78° 

70° 

69° 

63° 

61° 

4 

322 

95° 

64° 

54° 

47° 

43° 

41° 

39° 

2 

1 

323 

95° 

78° 

71° 

65° 

61° 

58° 

54° 

2 

323 

95° 

80° 

72° 

65° 

62° 

59° 

55° 

3 

323 

95° 

90° 

83° 

81° 

76° 

73° 

72° 

4 

323 

95° 

75° 

68° 

63° 

60° 

56° 

54° 

3 

1 

225 

87° 

75° 

65° 

62° 

58° 

55° 

53° 

2 

225 

87° 

75° 

66° 

63° 

59° 

57° 

53° 

3 

225 

88° 

85° 

77° 

73° 

70° 

68° 

67° 

4 

225 

88° 

70° 

60° 

54° 

51° 

49° 

47° 

4 

1 

140 

95° 

79° 

71° 

66° 

62° 

59° 

57° 

2 

140 

95° 

80° 

72° 

67° 

63° 

60° 

58° 

3 

140 

95° 

90° 

82° 

75° 

70° 

68° 

63° 

4 

140 

95° 

74° 

63° 

59° 

56° 

54° 

53° 

48 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 
Table  XI  —  Continued 


Q 

1 

Temperature  of  Milk  (Degrees  Fahrexheit)  at 

1 

Is 

» 

a 

•z 

^g 

9.00 

9.10 

9.20 

9.30 

9.40 

9.50 

10.00 

S 

^s 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

A.M. 

5 

1 

360 

95° 

75° 

66° 

60° 

55° 

52° 

48° 

2 

360 

95° 

75° 

67° 

61° 

56° 

53° 

49° 

3 

360 

95° 

88° 

79° 

72° 

65° 

61° 

57° 

4 

360 

95° 

73° 

58° 

51° 

46° 

43° 

41° 

6 

1 

293 

93° 

72° 

63° 

61° 

56° 

54° 

52° 

2 

293 

93° 

73° 

64° 

61° 

56° 

54° 

52° 

3 

293 

93° 

84° 

76° 

70° 

64° 

60° 

56° 

4 

293 

93° 

69° 

57° 

52° 

48° 

46° 

43° 

7 

1 

125 

96° 

81° 

71° 

65° 

59° 

56° 

53° 

2 

126 

96° 

80° 

72° 

71° 

59° 

56° 

58° 

3 

125 

96° 

92° 

80° 

71° 

67° 

63° 

58° 

4 

125 

96° 

73° 

61° 

53° 

49° 

46° 

44° 

8 

1 

200 

95° 

80° 

71° 

66° 

61° 

58° 

55° 

2 

200 

95° 

80° 

70° 

66° 

61° 

58° 

55° 

3 

200 

95° 

92° 

83° 

73° 

69° 

64° 

59° 

4 

200 

95° 

71° 

60° 

55° 

50° 

48° 

46° 

9 

1 

200 

95° 

82° 

-71° 

65° 

61° 

57° 

55° 

2 

200 

95° 

82° 

71° 

66° 

61° 

57° 

55° 

3 

200 

95° 

90° 

80° 

72° 

67° 

63° 

58° 

4 

200 

95° 

71° 

59° 

54° 

51° 

48° 

46° 

10 

200 

95° 

78° 

69° 

65° 

60° 

57° 

54° 

2 

200 

95° 

78° 

70° 

65° 

60° 

57° 

54° 

3 

200 

95° 

91° 

82° 

76° 

66° 

62° 

61° 

4 

200 

95° 

64° 

53° 

48° 

44° 

42° 

40° 

"Stirring  milk  during  cooling  produces  a  rapid  drop 
in  temperature,  which  is  advantageous  because  it  checks 


CARE  OF  MILK  AND  CREAM 


49 


the  growth  of  bacteria.  They  develop  more  slowlj^  as 
has  been  stated,  as  the  temperature  of  the  milk  decreases. 
In  each  experiment  recorded  in  Table  XI  all  the  milk  in 
can  4,  which  was  stirred  continuously,  was  cooled  very 
rapidly,  and  the  largest  drops  in  temperature  occurred 
near  the  beginning  of  the  period  ;  while  in  can  3,  which  was 
not  stirred  at  all,  the  temperature  of  the  milk  ranged  as 
high  as  72°  F.  at  the  end  of  the  hour.  The  point  is 
further  illustrated  in  Table  XIII,  according  to  which,  at 
the  end  of  twenty  minutes,  the  difference  in  temperature 
due  to  stirring  the  milk  varied  from  3°  to  17°  F.,  and  the 
average  difference  in  temperature  between  the  milk  stirred 
and  not  stirred  was  9.7°  F.  This  average  drop  in  tem- 
perature, 9.7°  F.,  in  twenty  minutes  due  to  stirring  means 
an  effective  check  on  the  development  of  bacteria.  For 
all  practical  purposes  it  seems  that  stirring  the  contents 
of  the  can  once  every  ten  minutes  for  an  hour  is  sufficient. 


Table  XII  —  Comparison  of  Temperature  of  Milk  in 
Center  of  Can  at  End  of  Cooling  Period  Before 
Stirring  and  After  Stirring 


Temperature  of  Milk  (Degrees  Fahrenheit) 

IN  Center  of  Can 

Sample 

Before  Stirring 

After  Stirring 

1 

66° 

49° 

2 

73° 

57^* 

3 

68° 

Qr 

4 

61° 

SS"* 

5 

72° 

53° 

6 

70° 

56° 

7 

60° 

54° 

8 

68° 

54° 

9 

64° 

52° 

10 

62° 

56° 

60 


THE  BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


"Table 

XIII  —  Effect  of 

Stirring  Milk  on  Rapidity  of 

Cooling 

Stirred  at  intervals  of 
10  minutes 

Not  stirred 

Difference  in 

Temperature  of  milk  (de- 

Temperature of  milk  (de- 

temperature 
(degrees  Fah- 
renheit) due  to 

Can 

grees  Fahrenheit)  at 

grees  Fahrenheit)  at 

stirring 

Beginning  of 

End  of  20 

Beginning  of 

End  of  20 

experiment 

minutes 

experiment 

minutes 

1 

95° 

68° 

95° 

75° 

7° 

2 

95° 

73° 

95° 

85° 

12° 

3 

90° 

75° 

92° 

80° 

5° 

4 

96° 

73° 

96° 

79° 

6° 

5 

98° 

71° 

98° 

88° 

17° 

6 

95° 

69° 

95° 

78° 

9° 

7 

98° 

73° 

98° 

76° 

3° 

8 

98° 

73° 

98° 

88° 

15° 

9 

96° 

72° 

98° 

86° 

14° 

]0 

99° 

73° 

99° 

82° 

9° 

''  When  a  sufficient  amount  of  ice  and  water  are  used, 
stirring  the  water  in  the  tank  at  frequent  intervals  has 
Uttle,  if  any,  effect  on  the  rapidity  with  which  the  milk 
cools  (Table  XIII).  In  this  experiment  the  milk  was  also 
stirred  every  ten  minutes.  The  large  quantity  of  ice  used 
in  this  experiment  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  can 
of  milk  from  which  these  temperatures  were  taken  was 
cooled  with  three  others  in  the  same  tank." 

37.  Coolers.  —  A  conical  or  tubular  cooler  may  be  used 
to  advantage  if  the  herd  is  large  and  there  is  a  large 
quantity  of  milk  to  be  cooled.  If  the  milk  is  separated 
at  the  creamery,  it  should  be  cared  for  as  outlined  above 
or  a  cooler  may  be  employed.  If  the  cream  is  separated 
on  the  farm  and  if  there  are  several  gallons  from  each 
separation,  it  may  pay  to  spout  the  cream  over  a  cooler 


CARE  OF   MILK   AND   CREAM  51 

SO  that  it  may  be  cooled  at  the  time  of  separation.  If  the 
quantity  of  cream  is  small,  it  should  be  separated  into  a 
shot-gun  can  and  cooled  before  it  is  placed  in  the  larger 
can  of  cream. 

38.  The  operator.  —  In  nearly  all  branches  of  any 
industry,  the  man  is  the  essential  consideration.  In 
dairying  the  disposition  of  the  operator  toward  keeping 
things  clean  is  the  main  item  in  the  production  of  a 
high-class  product.  The  presence  of  neatly  dressed  men 
in  a  creamery  and  a  tidy  butter  factory  always  has  a 
wholesome  effect  on  the  patrons  who  bring  milk  or 
cream,  as  well  as  on  the  purchasers  of  the  butter. 


CHAPTER  V 
CREAM  SEPARATION 

The  practice  of  skimming  cream  from  the  top  of  a 
vessel  of  milk  is  centuries  old.  Until  recent  years  butter 
was  made  from  cream  obtained  in  this  way,  or  it  was 
made  from  whole  milk.  The  modern  introduction  of 
mechanical  devices  has  unified  and  improved  the  process. 

SEPARATION    BY    THE    FORCE    OF    GRAVITY 

39.  Principle  of  separation.  —  The  separation  of  cream 
and  skimmed-milk  is  possible  because  of  the  difference 
in  the  specific  gravity.  The  specific  gravity  of  cream  is 
difficult  to  ascertain  because  of  the  exceedingly  variable 
fat-content  and  because  there  is  a  tendency  for  air  to  be 
incorporated  in  it.  For  the  purpose  of  separation,  it  is 
sufficient  to  say  that  the  specific  gravity  of  milk-fat  is 
.91  or  .92,  and  of  milk-serum  about  1.036.  As  long  as 
well  separated  skimmed-milk  contains  only  .01  to  .04  per 
cent  fat  by  the  Babcock  method  of  testing,  it  is  con- 
sidered to  be  all  serum.  In  view  of  the  fact  that  about 
one-fourth  to  one-half  of  cream  is  milk-fat,  it  is  readily 
seen  that  cream  is  much  lighter  than  skimmed-milk.  The 
force  of  gravity  acts  in  direct  proportion  to  the  weight 
of  matter.  Skimmed-milk  is  attracted  to  the  earth  with 
greater  force  than  milk-fat.  The  lighter  substance,  cream, 
is  crowded  away  from  the  earth,  or  is  less  attracted  to  it. 
Thus  the  cream  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  vessel  that 

52 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


53 


13.  —  The  shallow-pan  method 
of  cream  separation. 


contains  whole  milk.     In  ordinary  phraseology,  therefore, 

cream  "  rises." 

40.    Gravity  methods.  —  There  are  three  methods  of 

cream   separation,   depending   on   the   force   of   gravity. 

They  are  the  shallow-pan 

method,   the    deep-setting 

method,    and    the   water- 
dilution  method.     In  the 

first,  the  cream  is  skimmed 

off  with  a  shallow  dipper, 

and     in     the     other     two    Fig. 

methods  the  skimmed-milk 

is  drawn  off,  leaving  the  cream.     These  gravity  methods, 

however,  have  distinct  disadvantages,  one  of  the  most 

important  being  the  loss  of  a  small  amount  of  milk-fat 
each  time  they  are  used.  Tests 
of  the  relative  merits  of  the 
gravity  methods  of  separation 
have  been  made  in  order  to  de- 
termine how  great  is  this  loss. 
(See  Figs.  13  to  15.) 

41.  Efficiency  of  different 
methods  of  separation.  —  Accord- 
ing to  experiments  made  by  Hun- 
ziker,^  the  percentage  of  milk-fat 
in  the  skimmed-milk  separated 
from  cream  by  these  gravity 
methods  of  cream  separation  is  as 
follows :  water-dilution  method, 
.68  of  1  per  cent  of  fat ;  shallow-pan  method,  .44  of  1  per 
cent  of  fat;  deep-setting  method,  .17  of  1  per  cent  of  fat. 

1  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  The  Hand  Separator  and  the  Gravity  Systems 
of  Creaming,  Purdue  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  116,  1907. 


Fig.  14.  —  The  deep-setting 
method  of  cream  separa- 
tion. 


54 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


This  loss  of  milk-fat  from  the  milk  of  a  single  cow 
giving  5000  pounds  of  milk  each  year,  is  shown  in  Fig.  16. 
The  skimmed-milk  usually  amounts  to  about  85  per  cent 

of  the  whole  milk,  which 
in  this  case  would  mean  85 
per  cent  of  5000  pounds  of 
whole  milk,  or  4250  pounds 
of  skimmed-milk.  In  the 
manufacture  of  butter,  cer- 
tain amounts  of  moisture, 
salt,  and  casein  are  incor- 
porated. Thus  it  is  possible 
to  make  more  butter  from 
a  certain  amount  of  milk-fat 
than  there  was  original  fat. 
This  increase  is  known  as 
over-run.  In  the  computation  in  Fig.  16,  allowance 
was  made  for  an  over-run  of  one-sixth  of  the  original 
amount  of  milk-fat. 

According  to  the  statements  given,  if  the  price  of 
butter  were  30  cents  a  pound,  there  would  be  an  annual 
loss  of  $9.60  on  each  cow  by  the  use  of  the  water-dilution 
method,  and  $2.25  on  each  cow  by  the  use  of  the  deep- 
setting  method.  These  losses  are  computed  on  the  basis 
of  the  amount  of  milk-fat  lost  through  the  use  of  these 
methods  as  compared  with  the  amount  lost  if  a  modern 
centrifugal  separator  were  employed. 


Fig.  15.  —  The  water-dilution 
method  of  cream  separation. 


SEPARATION   BY   CENTRIFUGAL   FORCE 

The  centrifugal  cream  separator  has  meant  very  much 
to  the  dairy  industry.  It  would  not  be  possible,  with 
the  old  gravity  methods,  to  separate  the  cream  in  some  of 
the  modern  creameries  where  50,000  to  75,000  pounds  of 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


55 


whole  milk  are  handled  each  day.  As  the  dairy  industry 
grew,  a  greater  need  was  felt  for  a  more  efficient  method 
of  obtaining  the  milk-fat  in  the  form  of  cream.  The 
result  of  this  need  was  the  discovery  of  a  method  of 
separating  the  cream  and  milk-serum  by  centrifugal  force. 
Centrifugal  force  acts  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
weight  of  matter.     The  specific  gravity  of  skimmed-milk 


''t 

-  ..J 

i:7r 

t 

!          '  -J 

L:."1 

IL  -  -'^ 

^^I 

^-   f 

■r^-^ 


Zl 


rc:?.^iit? 


1^-^ 


I 


Fig.  16. — A  comparison  of  the  amount  of  butter  lost  in  the  skimmed- 
milk  from  one  cow  producing  5000  pounds  of  milk  in  one  year,  by  the 
use  of  different  methods  of  cream  separation.  Reading  from  left  to 
right:  water-dilution  method,  33  pounds;  shallow-pan  method,  22 
pounds ;  deep-setting  method,  8.5  pounds ;  centrifugal  method,  1 
poimd. 

is  greater  than  that  of  cream ;  therefore  the  skimmed- 
milk  is  thrown  from  the  center  with  greater  velocity 
than  the  cream.  This  concentrates  the  cream  toward 
the  center  of  the  bowl. 

42.  Intermittent  separation.  —  The  first  centrifugal 
cream  separator  consisted  of  pails  attached  to  cross-arms 
which  were  probably  three  to  six  feet  in  length.  The 
pails  were  fastened  in  such  a  way  that  the  heavier  sub- 


56 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


stance,  the  skimmed-milk,  was  thrown  to  the  bottom, 
thus  forcing  the  cream,  which  is  Hghter,  to  the  surface. 
It  is  not  definitely  determined  who  was  the  first  person 
to  study  this  subject.  However,  it  is  known  that  Rev. 
F.    H.    Bond  ^    of    Northport,    Massachusetts,    used    a 

similar  plan  of  generating  cen- 
trifugal force,  and  doubtless 
the  other  early  investigators 
employed  the  same  methods. 
C.  J.  Fuchs^  of  Carlsruhe, 
Germany,  w^as  one  of  the  first 
persons  to  suggest  the  utiliza- 
tion of  centrifugal  force  to 
separate  whole  milk  into  cream 
and  skimmed-milk.  Approxi- 
mately four  years  later,  in 
^  .  -^^!^^  1864,  Albert  Fesca  ^  of  Berlin 
^  and     Antonin     Prandtl  ^     of 

Munich  made  studies  similar 
to  those  of  Fuchs.  Bond, 
whose  work  is  mentioned 
above,  made  his  studies  in 
1870.  One  of  the  first  pieces 
of  apparatus  employed  in  sep- 
arating cream  is  shown  in  Fig. 
17.  These  were  intermittent 
methods. 

43.  Continuous  separation. — The  intermittent  method 
was  slow  and  wearisome.  Therefore,  in  1874,  the  idea 
of    continuous    separation   was    conceived.       It  is  said 


Fig.  17.  —  An  early  cream  sep- 
arator experiment.  This  ma- 
chine consisted  of  a  device 
for  whirUng  buckets  in  which 
the  milk  was  placed.  After 
whirling  a  short  time  the  ma- 
chine had  to  be  stopped  and 
the  cream  removed  from  the 
buckets  by  hand  skimming. 
This  machine  was  about  four 
feet  high,  and  each  bucket 
held  about  two  gallons. 


^  McKay,  G.  L.,  and  Larsen,  C,  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Buttermaking,  p.  130,  1906. 

2  Fleischmann,  W.,  The  Book  of  the  Dairy,  p.  120,  1896. 


CREAM   SEPARATION  57 

that  a  patent  was  granted  in  France  in  1874  to  the 
Company  of  Fives  Lille  for  a  system  of  continuous 
centrifugal  decantation.  Prandtl  ^  displayed  a  con- 
tinuous separator  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main.  It  did 
not  attract  much  attention  because  of  the  great  power 
needed  to  operate  it.  A  Danish  engineer,  Winstrup,^ 
succeeded  in  improving  the  old  intermittent  bucket 
method  in  1876.  In  1877  Lefeldt  and  Lentsch^  of 
Schoenigen,  Germany,  placed  on  sale  four  continuous 
separators  with  a  capacity  of  110  to  600  pounds  of  whole 
milk  an  hour.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  the  Lefeldt 
and  Lentsch  patent  covered  the  introduction  of  new 
milk  into  the  machine  back  of  the  cream  wall,  so  that 
the  cream  line  would  not  be  disturbed  by  the  new  milk 
roughing  up  the  surface.  It  seems  that  P.  L.  Kimball 
of  the  Vermont  Farm  Machine  Company  was  granted 
a  patent  in  1896  on  a  similar  method  of  introducing  milk 
into  the  bowl,  and  later,  in  1903,  a  patent  was  issued 
to  him  after  improvement  had  been  made.  Also  in 
1877  Houston  and  Thompson,  teachers  in  the  high  school 
of  Philadelphia,  filed  an  application  for  a  patent  for 
the  continuous  method  of  separating  cream  from  skimmed- 
milk.  This  patent  was  granted  in  1881.  Again  the  year 
1877  is  noted,  for  Carl  Gustof  Patrik  DeLaval,  a  young 
Swedish  engineer,  invented  a  continuous-flow  cream 
separator.  The  commercial  manufacture  of  the  DeLaval 
machine  was  begun  in  1878. 

44.  When  and  where  the  first  separators  were  made 
and  sold.  —  In  Europe  the  first  centrifugal  cream 
separators  were  made  and  sold  by  Lefeldt  and  Lentsch  of 

1  Fleischmann,  W.,  The  Book  of  the  Dairy,  p.  120,  1896. 

2  McKay,  G.  L.,  and  Larsen,  C,  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Buttermaking,  p.  130,  1906. 


58 


THE   BOOK    OF   BUTTER 


Schoenigen,  Germany;  Burmeister  and  Wain,  ship- 
builders, of  Copenhagen,  Denmark;  and  DeLaval  and 
Oscar  Lamm,  Jr.,  of  Stockliolm,  under  the  firm  name 
of  Oscar  Lamm,  Jr.  Later  the  last  company  was  organized 
under  the  firm  name  of  Aktiebolaget  Separator. 

In  America  the  agency  for  the  Burmeister  and  ^Yain 
separator  was  secured  by  Jonathan  Evans,  president  of 


Fig.  18.  —  A  Burmeister  and  Wain  separator. 


the  Philadelphia  Creamery  Supply  Company,  Philadel- 
phia, Pennsylvania.  Later  an  arrangement  was  com- 
pleted whereby  this  company  made  the  separators  and 
Burrell  and  \Yhitman  of  Little  Falls,  New  York,  sold 
them.  At  this  time  the  name  of  the  machine  was  *'  Phila- 
delphia Danish-Weston  Cream  Separator."  Later  it  was 
known  as  the  Danish-Weston  Separator.  It  is  said  that 
D.  M.  Weston,  a  sugar  refiner  of  Boston,  Massachusetts, 


CREAM   SEPARATION  59 

made  some  improvements  on  the  Burmeister  and  Wain 
machine,  which  accounts  for  his  name  being  connected 
with  the  separator.  Fig.  18  shows  the  Burmeister  and 
Wain  separator.  The  shepherd 's-crook  shape  outlets  for 
the  cream  and  skimmed-milk  used  on  this  machine, 
and  which  were  adjustable,  were  invented  by  Oscar 
Lamm,  Jr.,  who  later  sold  the  DeLaval  separator.  He 
secured  the  patent  in  1885.  It  is  stated  that  Nels  H. 
Blom  ^  was  the  operator  of  the  first  centrifugal  cream 
separator  in  the  United  States.  He  used  a  Burmeister 
and  Wain  separator  on  the  farm  of  Jeppe  Slifsgaard, 
Fredsville,  Iowa,  in  1882.  In  order  that  Burrell  and 
Whitman  might  sell  the  Danish-Weston  Cream  Separator, 
it  was  necessary  for  them  to  pay  a  royalty  to  Theodore 
Bergner  of  Philadelphia,  who  owned  both  the  Thompson 
and  Houston  and  the  Lefeldt  and  Lentsch  patents. 

The  DeLaval  separator  was  sold  in  America  by  Joseph 
H.  Reall,  agent  of  the  Aktiebolaget  Separator  of  Sweden. 
In  1882  the  American  DeLaval  Company  was  organized, 
and  Reall  became  the  manager  and  selling  agent.  From 
1883  to  1888  P.  M.  Sharpies  of  West  Chester,  Pennsylvania, 
and  A.  L.  Vail  of  Middletown,  New  York,  manufactured 
the  frames  for  the  American  DeLaval  Company.  In  1888 
the  American  DeLaval  Company  established  its  own 
manufacturing  plant,  and  shortly  afterwards  Sharpies 
began  to  manufacture  a  separator  of  his  own,  which  was 
known  as  the  Sharpies  Separator. 

45.  Bowl  devices.  —  A  device  in  all  separator  bowls 
guides  or  feeds  the  whole  milk  into  the  region  of  the 
greatest  centrifugal  force.  With  one  exception,  all  cen- 
trifugal separators  with  which  the  author  is  familiar  have 

^  News  Item,  Butter,  Cheese,  and  Egg  Jour.,  Vol.  7,  No.  41, 
p.  16,  1916. 


60  THE    BOOK    OF   BUTTER 

internal  bowl  parts,  such  as  disks,  cones,  and  blades. 
The  purpose  of  these  parts  is  to  form  pathways  for  the 
skimmed-milk  and  the  cream  to  pass  each  other.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  these  devices  do  not  cause  separation  ; 
they  simply  aid  the  centrifugal  force.  The  introduction  of 
these  devices  has  made  possible  the  use  of  a  much  smaller 
bowl  for  a  given  capacity.  In  the  evolution  of  improve- 
ment in  this  direction,  the  bowls  of  cream  separators  have 
become  lighter,  and  they  are  consequently  easier  to  turn 
and  to  handle.  The  separator  referred  to  as  being  the 
one  exception  has  a  long  and  narrow  tube-like  bowl,  in 
the  smaller  sizes  in  which  it  is  manufactured.  It  should 
be  understood  that  the  small  tubular  bowl  is  so  narrow 
that  the  disks,  blades,  and  the  like  are  not  necessary. 
The  length  of  this  bowl  permits  the  milk  to  be  subjected 
to  the  centrifugal  force  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to 
cause  efficient  separation  without  the  use  of  the  bowl 
devices. 

The  first  bowl  device  to  divide  the  milk  in  layers  was 
the  disk.  It  was  invented  by  Baron  Clemens  von  Bechtols- 
heim,  a  German  living  in  Sweden,  in  1888.  Immediately 
after  this  invention,  the  manufacturers  of  separators 
recognized  that  the  big  hollow  bowl  was  a  thing  of  the 
past.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  the  bowl  of  the  Danish- 
Weston  separator  was  large  and  ungainly.  It  was  15 
inches  deep  by  24  inches  in  diameter  and  weighed  100 
pounds.  As  a  result  of  this  new  invention,  an  agreement 
was  made  in  1889  by  Bermstrom,  president  of  the  Aktie- 
bolaget  Separator,  and  D.  H.  Burrell  of  Burrell  and  Whit- 
man, whereby  Burrell  and  Whitman,  later  D.  H.  Burrell 
and  Company,  obtained  an  agency  of  the  DeLaval 
separator  in  the  United  States.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  American  DeLaval  Company  continued 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


61 


to  manufacture  and  sell  separators.  The  Danish- Weston 
cream  separator,  which  had  been  manufactured  from  1881 
to  1890,  was  no  longer  made.  After  the  expiration  of  all 
patents,  the  Reid  separators  were  patterned  after  the 
Danish- Weston.  How^ever,  they  did  not  have  much  sale, 
for  they  were  too  big  and  clumsy. 

46.  Later  separators.  —  As  the  separator  industry 
grew,  the  idea  of  a  centrifugal  butter  extractor  was  con- 
ceived by  C.  A.  Johansson  of  Stockholm,  Sweden.  It 
was  manufactured  by  the  United  States  Butter  Extractor 
Company.  This  machine 
first  separated  the  cream 
from  the  milk.  The  cream 
was  conveyed  into  an  inner 
chamber  of  the  separator 
bowl.  It  was  churned  within 
the  inner  chamber  and  the 
granules  were  conveyed  in 
one  direction,  the  buttermilk 
was  carried  in  another  and 
the  skimmed-milk  was  taken 
in  still  another  direction. 
This  machine,  it  is  said,  was 
successful  in  accomplishing 
what  Johansson  claimed  for 
it,  but  the  demand  for 
sweet  cream  butter  was  not 
sufficiently  great  to  make 
the  use  of  a  butter  ex- 
tractor popular.  The  patents  on  Johansson's  butter 
extractor  were  purchased  by  the  Vermont  Farm  Machine 
Company  of  Bellows  Falls,  Vermont.  Improvements 
on  this  extractor,  which  was  later  modeled  into  a  cream 


Fig.   19.  —  The  first  Sharpies 
factory  separator. 


62 


THE    BOOK    OF    BUTTER 


separator,  were  made  by  Olaf  Ohlsson  in  1892.  Since 
then  many  improvements  have  been  made  by  employees 
of  the  \  ermont  Farm  Machine  Company.  The  Sharpies 
Separator  Company  of  West  Chester,  Pennsylvania,  began 
manufacturing  the  Sharpies  factory  separator,  as  seen  in 
Fig.  19,  in  1889.  About  this  time  the  hand  machine  was 
first  made  as  seen  in  Fig.  20.     In  1894  this  company 


Fig.  20.— The  first  Sharpies 
hand  separator. 


Fig.  21.  —  The  first  Sharpies  tubu- 
lar factory  separator. 


manufactured  the  tubular  bowl  machine  as  seen  in  Figs. 
21  and  22.  The  tubular  machine  was  developed  by 
Herbert  McCornack,  P.  M.  Sharpies,  and  D.  R.  Sharpies, 
in  1893  or  1894.  At  about  that  time  D.  H.  Burrell  and 
Company  began  to  manufacture  the  Simplex  separator 
with  the  link  blade  invented  by  Hoyt  of  that  factory. 
Since  that  time  many  companies  have  been  organized 
to  manufacture  cream   separators,  until  now  there  are 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


63 


seventy-five  to  one  hundred  different  makes  of  cream 
separators  used  in  the  United  States.  There  are  about 
five  companies  in  this  country  that  manufacture  sepa- 
rators sufficiently  large  for  creamery  use.  Among  the 
first  companies  to  manufacture  cream  separators  in 
America,  other  than  the  above  mentioned  concerns,  were 
the  Empire  Cream  Separator  Company  of  Bloomfield, 
New  Jersey,  and  Davis 
and  Rankin,  of  Chicago, 
Illinois. 

In  Continental  Europe 
and  the  British  Isles,  the 
first  separators  to  be  man- 
ufactured, other  than  the 
ones  already  mentioned, 
were  the  Balance  ^  sep- 
arator made  by  the  Carls- 
shops  in  Nendsburg,  Ger- 
many ;  Melotte  separator 
of  Brussels,  Belgium  ;  The 
Flensburger^  made  by  the 
Flensburger  Iron  Works 
in  Germany  ;  Ludloffs  ^ 
separator  made  by  F.  Lud- 
loff  and  Sons  of  Berlin, 
Germany ;  Gerauschlose 
separator  built  by  Laidlow  and  Company  in  Glasgow; 
Victoria  ^  separator  made  by  Watson,  Laidlow,  and 
Company  in  Glasgow ;  Prinzess  separator,  also  made 
by  Watson,  Laidlow,  and  Company  in  Glasgow ;  West- 
falia  ^  separator  made  by  Ramsuhl  and  Schmidt  in 
Oeldt ;  Acheiters  ^  separator  manufactured  by  Friedrich 
1  Kirchner,  W.,  Milch  Wirtschaft,  p.  182,  1898. 


I'lG 


The  first  Sharpies  tubular 
hand  separator. 


64 


THE    BOOK    OF    BUTTER 


Scheiter  of  Niederwiirschnitz  ;  Dasekings  ^  separator  made 
by  Theodore  Heilbron,  Hanover;  Kantz  ^  separator  made 
by  Ferd,  Shultz,  and  Company,  Liinen ;  the  Helice  ^ 
separator  and  the  Butterfly  separator  which  were  made  by 
F.  H.  H.  Koch,  Hamburg;  and  the  Fesca  separator  made 
in  France. 

It  seems  from  the  number  of  separators  put  on  the 
market,  that  the  centrifugal  method  of  separation  was 


Fig.  23.  —  Modern  Sharpies 
tubular  turbine  factory 
separator. 


Fig. 


24.  —  The  new  Sharpies  suction 
feed  hand  separator. 


recognized  as  the  future  method  of  obtaining  cream  from 
milk ;  and  evidently  many  manufacturers  saw  a  prosper- 
ous business  in  the  building  of  these  machines. 

Immediately    following    the    manufacture    of    smaller 
1  Kirchner,  W.,  Milch  Wirtschaft,  p.  182,  1898. 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


65 


bowls,  came  the  small  separator  with  hand  power  for 
farm  use.  Many  separators  now,  and  yet  only  a  small 
proportion  of  the  total  number  of  machines  on  the  farm, 
are  driven  in  a  similar  way  to  the  larger  ones  in  the 
creameries.  Electricity,  gas,  and  steam  are  the  powers 
usually  employed.  Occasionally  a  treadpower  is  found. 
Gas  is  the  most  common 
form  of  power  on  the 
farm,  and  steam  is  usu- 
ally employed  in  the 
creamery.  P^igs.  23  to  32 
show  the  improvement  in 
the  construction  of  hand 
and  power  driven  sepa- 
rators. In  some  cases 
the  supply  tanks  are 
lower,  the  mechanism  is 
more  simple,  they  run 
easier,  they  have  greater 
capacity,  and  they  are 
more  efficient  than  they 
were  fifteen  years  ago. 

As  the  dairy  industry 
has  grown,  there  has 
been  a  demand  for  a 
greater  variation  in  the 
capacities  of  separators. 


Fig.  25. 


A  Simplex  hand  separator. 

At  present  there  is  a  variation 
in  the  hand  machines  from  80  to  100  pounds  of  whole 
milk  an  hour  to  700  or  800  pounds  an  hour,  and  in  the 
power  sizes  the  variation  is  from  the  capacities  of  the 
hand  separators  to  10,000  pounds  an  hour.  Thus  it  is 
seen  that  separators  are  made  sufficiently  small  for  a 
herd  of  only  two  or  three  cows,  and  some  are  so  large 


66 


THE    BOOK   OF    BUTTER 


that  two  or  three  machmes  can  handle  the  milk  of  the 
largest  creameries. 

Among  some  of  the  most  recent  developments  of  the 
separator  are  the  interchangeable  disks,  which  simplify 
the  assembling  of  the  bowl,  the  addition  of  speed  in- 
dicators, better  oiling  systems,  and  other  improvements 
that  naturally  follow  in  developing  a  ma- 
One  of  the  most  noticeable  recent 
inventions  is  the  suction  feed  of  the  tubular 


Fig.  27.  —  The  original  United 
Fig.  26.  —  A  Simplex  power  separator.  States  separator. 


machine.  The  important  feature  is  that,  within  certain 
limits,  a  change  in  speed  does  not  affect  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  the  cream.  The  bowl  is  constructed  in  such  a 
way  that  more  milk  is  fed  into  the  bowl  when  the  speed 
of  the  machine  is  high  than  when  it  is  low ;    thus  the 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


67 


centrifugal  force  is  applied  in  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  milk  that  is  flowhig  into  the  bowl. 


Fig,  28.  —  The  modern  United  States  separator. 


THE    OPERATION    OF   THE    CENTRIFUGAL   SEPARATOR 

The  modern  centrifugal  separator  is  simple  and  easy 
to  operate.  However,  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  it 
is  a  delicate  piece  of  machinery  and  that  it  runs  at  high 


68 


THE   BOOK   OF    BUTTER 


I 


speed.  It  is  reported  that  at  one  time  early  in  the  his- 
tory of  centrifugal  separators,  before  the  machines  were 
perfected,  a  separator  bowl  burst  at  Hazelton,  Kansas, 
and  killed  seven  persons.  A  few  similar  accidents  have 
happened  before  and  since  because  machines  are  often 
overspeeded.    This  means  that  an  operator  should  be  well 

acquainted  with  the  machine 
itself  and  with  the  important 
considerations  affecting  the  sep- 
aration of  milk.  In  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs  are  some  of  these 
important  factors. 

47.  Regulation  of  the  fat  in 
the  cream.  —  The  richness,  or 
the  percentage  of  fat,  in  cream 
derived  from  whole  milk  by  the 
use  of  a  centrifugal  separator  is 
regulated  by  either  a  cream 
screw  or  a  skimmed-milk  screw. 
Two  main  facts  should  be  re- 
membered when  one  sets  either 
of  these  screws.  The  first  is 
that  the  richness  of  the  cream 
depends  on  the  point  in  the 
bowl  from  which  it  is  drawn. 
The  richest  cream  is  drawn 
from  the  center  of  the  bowl, 
and  the  richness  decreases  as  the  distance  from  the 
center  increases.  The  other  fact  is  that  the  smaller  the 
proportion  of  cream  to  skimmed-milk,  the  richer  is  the 
cream  in  fat.  The  percentage  of  fat  in  cream  should 
be  regulated  according  to  the  use  that  is  to  be  made 
of  the  cream.      Ordinarily   for  churning   purposes,  the 


Fig.  29.  — DeLaval  puun  .-ap- 
arator.  This  machine  was 
belt-driven  anl  consisted  of 
a  large  hollow  bowl  and  a 
frame  for  supporting  it.  This 
separator  had  a  capacity  of 
about  600  pounds  of  milk  an 
hour,  and  in  size  was  about 
3  feet  liigh.  The  bowl  was 
11 J  inches  in  diameter. 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


69 


proportion    of   cream   to   skimmed-milk   should    be   ap- 
proximately one  to  eight,  or  one  to  ten.      P'or  example, 


/m      1^^^^ 


Fig.  30.  —  Old  and  new  types  of  DeLaval  hand  separator. 


in    100   pounds   of  whole   milk  testing  4   per   cent   fat, 
there   are    four    pounds    of    fat    (100    pounds  X  4    per 


Fig.  31.  —  Belt  and  turbine  driven  type  of  DeLaval  power  separators. 


cent  =  4  pounds  fat).      In  ten   pounrls  of  cream  that 
have   been   separated    from    the  given    100   pounds   of 


70 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


whole  milk  and    that    test  40  per  cent  fat,  there  are 
approximately  four  pounds  of  fat  (10  pounds  X  40  per 

cent  =  4  pounds).  If 
there  is  no  waste,  there 
are  ninety  pounds  of 
skimmed-milk  (100 
pounds  —  10  pounds  == 
90  pounds).  The  ratio 
of  the  cream  (10  pounds) 
to  the  skimmed-milk  (90 
pounds)  is  one  to  nine. 
If  cream  having  a  lower 
percentage  of  fat  is  de- 
sired, this  ratio  will  be 
less.  Cream  with  a 
lower  percentage  of  fat  is 
often  used  on  the  table 
and  for  making  ice 
cream.  In  separating 
cream  for  these  purposes 
the  ratio  of  cream  to 
skimmed-milk  should  be 
about  one  to  four,  to 
five,  or  to  six,  depending 
on  the  percentage  of  fat 
in  the  whole  milk. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  a 
comparison  of  the  quan- 
tities of  cream  and 
skimmed-milk  obtained 
in  separation  gives  a  close  approximation  to  the  percent- 
age of  fat  in  the  cream.  These  ratios  are  shown  in  Fig. 
33.     It  also  gives  the  results  of  temperature  study  of  one 


Fig.  32.  — The  Tit-n-Alexandra, 
largest  separator  made,  with  a  ca- 
pacity of  10,000  pounds  of  whole  milk 
an  hour. 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


71 


separator;  this  topic  is  discussed  later  in  the  chapter. 
The  figure  makes  clear  the  fact  that  if  cream  with  a  high 
percentage  of  fat  has  been  separated,  no  more  fat  has 


Fig.  33.  —  A  comparison  of  the  amounts  of  cream  from  one  can  of  whole 
milk  separated  at  different  temperatm-es.  The  pounds  of  fat  in  the 
whole  milk  and  in  each  pail  of  cream  are  practically  the  same. 

been  obtained  from  a  given  amount  of  whole  milk  than 
if  the  cream  has  a  low  fat-content,  for  the  weight  of  the 
cream  is  less. 

If  a  well-made  centrifugal  separator  is  operated  properly, 
it  will  separate  cream  containing  as  high  as  45  to  50  per 
cent  of  fat,  and  there  will  be  only  the  normal  loss  of  fat 
in  the  skimmed-milk.  Usually  it  is  not  desirable  that 
cream  should  contain  more  than  40  to  45  per  cent,  for 
very  rich  cream  is  wasted  by  adhering  to  cans,  dippers, 
and  other  utensils,  and  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  a  representa- 
tive sample  of  it  for  testing. 


72  THE    BOOK    OF    BUTTER 

The  fat-content  of  cream  cannot  be  controlled  to  a 
definite  percentage  by  the  regulation  of  the  cream  screw 
or  the  skimmed-milk  screw,  and  the  percentage  of  fat  in 
cream  will  not  remain  constant  even  when  these  screws 
are  not  changed.  There  is  one  possible  exception  in  one 
machine,  i.e.  the  Sharpies  suction  feed.  There  are  cer- 
tain factors  that  affect  the  percentage  of  fat  in  cream  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree  as  it  is  being  separated.  The  effect 
of  these  factors  on  the  percentage  of  fat  in  skimmed- 
milk  is  not  so  noticeable  as  their  effect  on  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  cream. 

48.  The  temperature  of  the  whole  milk.  —  The  tem- 
perature of  milk  that  is  being  separated  should  be  such 
that  the  milk  will  flow  easily,  in  order  to  facilitate  rapid 
and  thorough  separation  of  the  cream  and  the  skimmed- 
milk.  The  temperature  does  not  need  to  be  as  high  as  the 
body  temperature  of  the  cow,  which  is  normally  about 
101.4°  F. ;  however,  if  the  separation  takes  place  on  the 
farm,  milk  should  be  separated  as  soon  as  possible  after  it 
has  been  drawn,  especially  in  the  winter.  In  creameries 
and  in  other  places  where  milk  is  separated  after  it  has 
cooled,  the  temperature  of  the  milk  should  be  raised  to 
85°  to  90°  F.  beforehand.  The  temperature  of  the  whole 
milk  has  a  direct  effect  on  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
cream  and  the  skimmed-milk.  To  show  the  exact  effect 
of  variation  in  temperature,  tests  were  made  ^  of  cream 
and  skimmed-milk  that  had  been  separated  by  five 
different  types  of  separators.  The  results  of  these 
tests  are  given  in  Figs.  34  and  35.  The  cream  and 
the  skimmed-milk  separated   by  all  the  machines   were 

^  Guthrie,  E.  S.,  and  Supplee,  G.  C,  Variations  in  the  Tests 
for  Fat  in  Cream  and  Skimmed-Milk,  Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Exp. 
Sta.  Bui.  360,  1915. 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


73 


not  affected  alike  by  different  temperatures.  From  a 
study  of  Fig.  34,  it  may  be  thought  that  there  is  an 
advantage  in  having  the  whole  milk  at  a  low  temperature 
because  the  cream  from  two  of  the  separators  contained 
a  much  higher  percentage  of  fat  when  the  temperature 
was  low.     However,  the  loss  of  fat  in  the  skimmed-milk 


90°  80°  75°       90°  75°  70°     90°  80°      90°  75°       90°  80° 
Separator  1       Separator  2     Separa-      Separa-      Separa- 
tor 3  tor  4  tor  5 

Fig.  34.  —  A  diagram  representing  percentage  of  fat  in  cream  as  in- 
fluenced by  the  temperature  of  the  whole  milk.  Temperatures  are 
expressed  in  degrees  Fahrenheit.     Percentages  at  left. 

was  comparatively  greater,  as  shown  in  Fig.  35.  When 
the  fat-content  in  the  skimmed-milk  does  not  vary  greatly, 
the  amount  of  cream  from  a  certain  quantity  of  whole 
milk  decreases  in  direct  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the 
amount  of  milk-fat  in  the  cream.  This  fact  is  clearly 
brought  out  in  Fig.  33.     It  should  be  noticed  in  Fig,  33 


74 


THE   BOOK    OF   BUTTER 


that   the  weight   of   the    fat   in  the  whole  milk  and   in 
all  three  pails   of  cream  was  approximately  the   same, 


90°  80° 

90°  75° 

90°  80° 

Separa- 

Separa- 

Separa- 

tor 3 

tor  4 

tor  5 

90°  80°  75°       90°  75°  70° 
Separator  1      Separator  2 

Fig.  35.  —  A  diagram  representing  percentage  of  fat  in  skimmed-milk  as 
influenced  by  the  temperature  of  the  whole  milk.  Temperatures  are 
expressed  in  degrees  Fahrenheit.     Percentages  shown  at  left. 

but  that  there  was  a  distinct  variation  in  the  weight 
of  the  cream. 

49.  The  rate  of  speed.  —  The  centrifugal  force  that 
causes  separation  is  produced  by  the  rapid  revolving  of 
the  bowl.  The  separator  bowl,  about  four  inches  in 
diameter,  makes  approximately  nine  thousand  revolutions 
a  minute.  Thus  a  point  on  the  circumference  of  the 
bowl  travels  at  the  rate  of  somewhat  less  than  two  miles 
a  minute.  The  number  of  turns  of  the  crank  necessary 
to  effect  thorough  separation  varies  for  different  machines 
from  forty-five  to  sixty-five  a  minute.  X  slight  variation 
in  the  speed  exerts  a  great  effect  on  the  velocity  of  the 
bowl ;  and  care  must  be  exercised  in  producing  a  regu- 
lated speed,  if  uniform  results  are  to  be  expected.  The 
effect  of  a  decrease  of  six  or  ten  revolutions  a  minute  on 
the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  cream  is  considerable,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  36  ;   and  the  effect  on  the  percentage  of  fat 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


75 


in  the  skimmed-milk  is  very  slight,  as  shown  in  Fig.  37. 
A  slight  variation  in  the  speed  of    the  crank  does  not 


ions  60  54  50 

60  50 

45  38 

55  45 

60  50 

Separator  1 

Separa- 
tor 2 

Separa- 
tor 3 

Separa- 
tor 4 

Separa- 
tor 8 

Fig.  36.  —  A   diagram  representing   percentage  of  fat  in  cream  as  in- 
fluenced by  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  separator  crank  a  minute. 

affect  the  amount  of  fat  separated  from  the  whole  milk, 
but  it  does  affect  the  quantity  of  the  cream. 

All  hand  separators  have  the  number  of  revolutions 
necessary  for  efficient  separation  marked  on  the  crank,  and 


.08 

.06 
.04 
.02 
.00 

i 

^i  ■ 

Revolutions  60  54  50 

60  50 

45  38 

55  45 

60  50 

Separator  1 

Separa- 

Separa- 

Separa- 

Separa- 

tor 2 

tor  3 

tor  4 

tor  5 

Fig.  37.  —  A  diagram  representing  percentage  of  fat  in  skimmed-milk  as 
influenced  by  the  number  of  revolutions  of  the  separator  crank  a 
minute.     Percentages  at  left. 

all  power  separators  carry  instructions  as  to  the   proper 
rate  of  speed  at  which  they  should  be  operated.     Naturally 


76 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


the  manufacturer  is  careful  not  to  state  a  rate  of  speed 
that  will  give  results  just  above  the  border  line  of  poor 
separation.      If  these  instructions  of  the  manufacturers 

are  followed  carefully,  the 
separation  of  milk  will  be 
found  to  be  thorough.  The 
fact  remains,  however,  that 
the  rate  of  speed  may  drop 
several  hundred  revolu- 
tions of  the  bowl  below  the 
number  designated,  and 
still  the  skimmed-milk  will 
contain  approximately  the 
same  percentage  of  milk-fat 
as  when  the  bowl  is  re- 
volving at  the  so-called 
normal  speed.  In  the  case 
of  the  hand  separators, 
this  amounts  to  five  or  ten 
revolutions  of  the  crank 
less  than  the  number  given 
for  normal  speed. 

50.   Percentage  of  fat  in 
whole  milk.  — The  percent- 


Percentage  3     4     5  3     4     5 

Separator  1  Separator  2 

Fig.  38.  —  A  diagram   representing 
the  percentage  of  fat  in  cream  as 
influenced  by  the  percentage  of  fat     age  of  fat  in  wliole  milk  is 
in  whole  milk.     The  figures  on  the     ,.„„•    ui^        T,.    +u:      ^^.^^.+ 
left  of  the  diagram  represent  per-     variable.      In   this   respect, 
centage  of  fat  in  cream,  and  those     the    milk    from     individual 

fTtt  wh'ok^r'''''"''"*''^"'    eo^vs  may  ^•ary  as  much  as 

two  or  three  per  cent  from 
one  milking  to  another,  and  yet  the  cow  may  appear 
to  be  in  a  normal  condition.  The  fat-content  of  the 
milk  of  a  herd  is  not  so  variable  as  that  from  a  single 
cow.     Other  things  being  equal,  the  larger  the  herd,  the 


CREAM   SEPARATION  77 

smaller  is  the  variation  of  the  fat-content.  The  difference 
in  the  percentage  of  fat  is  not  so  great  from  day  to  day  as 
it  is  from  milking  to  milking,  and  this  variation  is  still 
less  from  week  to  week  and  from  month  to  month.  The 
influence  of  a  variation  in  the  fat-content  of  the  whole 
milk  on  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  cream  is  shown  in 
Fig.  38.  The  percentage  of  fat  in  the  cream  is  in  almost 
direct  proportion  to  the  percentage  in  the  whole  milk. 

51.  Variation  in  the  quantity  of  whole  milk  or  in  the 
amount  of  liquid  used  for  flushing. — There  is  variation 
in  the  quantity  of  milk  from  one  milking  to  another,  and 
this  causes  variation  in  the  amount  to  be  separated 
from  one  time  to  another.  Very  few  persons  operating 
separators  use  a  fixed  amount  of  skimmed-milk  or  water 
for  flushing  the  separator  bowl.  For  the  hand  ma- 
chines, two  or  three  quarts  of  flushing  material  are 
sufficient.  For  the  larger  power  separators,  more  milk 
is  usually  separated ;  consequently,  there  is  more  cream 
and  it  is  possible  to  use  more  skimmed-milk  or  water  in 
proportion  to  the  size  of  the  separator  for  flushing  without 
very  great  dilution  of  the  cream.  The  amount  of  flushing 
material  that  goes  into  the  cream  is  only  a  small  percentage 
of  the  total,  and  it  affects  only  slightly  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  the  cream.  Under  average  conditions,  these 
factors  are  not  of  much  importance  if  approximately  the 
same  quantities  of  milk  and  flushing  material  are  used 
each  time. 

52.  Slime  deposit.  —  If  the  passages  for  the  cream  and 
the  skimmed-milk  in  a  separator  are  closed  or  partly 
so  by  slime  deposit,  the  efficiency  of  the  separator  is 
affected.  This  slime  deposit  is  composed  of  fibrin  from 
the  milk  and  of  dirt,  and  it  accumulates  in  a  greater  or 
less  amount  even  from  the  best  milk.     Generally,  this 


78  THE    BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

accumulation  is  not  sufficient  to  cause  excessive  loss  of 
fat  in  the  skimmed-milk  if  the  separator  is  run  the  length 
of  time  of  the  average  separation. 

ADVANTAGES    OF    THE    CENTRIFUGAL    METHOD    OF    CREAM 
SEPARATION    OVER   THE    GRAVITY   METHODS 

53.  Fewer  utensils.  —  Ordinarily,  fewer  utensils  are 
used  in  the  centrifugal  than  in  the  gravity  methods.  If 
the  herd  is  composed  of  only  two  or  three  cows,  this  may 
not  be  true  ;  but  if  there  are  eight  to  ten  cows,  it  holds. 

54.  Skimmed-milk  fresher  and  warmer.  —  The 
skimmed-milk  that  has  been  separated  from  the  cream 
by  a  centrifugal  separator  is  fresher  and  warmer  for 
use  in  feeding  stock  than  the  skimmed-milk  produced 
by  the  old  methods.  This  may  not  be  an  advantage 
in  some  cases ;   yet  in  no  case  is  it  a  detriment. 

55.  Fat  more  easily  handled.  —  The  fat,  which  is  the 
most  valuable  constituent  of  milk,  is  immediately  obtained 
in  a  small  quantity  and  is,  therefore,  more  readily  cooled 
and  otherwise  handled.  If  the  old  gravity  methods  of 
separation  are  employed,  about  thirty-six  hours  are 
required  for  the  cream  to  ''  rise." 

56.  Less  loss  of  fat.  —  Cream  separation  by  the  centrif- 
ugal method  is  more  thorough  than  by  the  gravity  methods 
because  less  milk-fat  is  left  in  the  skimmed-milk. 

FACTORS  TO  BE  CONSIDERED  IN  BUYING  A  CENTRIFUGAL 
SEPARATOR 

Since  improvements  in  the  construction  of  separators 
are  being  made  constantly,  it  is  impossible  for  any  one 
person  to  collect  sufficient  data  to  determine  which  is  the 
best  machine.  However,  a  few  points  may  help  to  guide 
the  buyer.     Following  is  a  list  of  these  points  (57-59). 


CREAM   SEPARATION  79 

57.  Size.  —  Ordinarily,  for  farm  use,  a  separator  should 
be  of  such  a  size  or  such  capacity  that  it  will  separate 
the  milk  produced  by  a  herd  at  one  milking  in  one-half 
hour  or  less.  Usually  a  farmer's  time  is  worth  sufficient 
to  make  it  cheaper  for  him  to  buy  a  large  enough  sepa- 
rator than  to  use  more  time  in  operating  a  smaller  and 
cheaper  machine.  Other  farm  conditions  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  choice  of  a  separator  of  proper  size.  It 
may  be  the  plan  of  the  farmer  to  increase  or  decrease 
the  size  of  his  dairy  herd,  and,  since  a  separator  will 
wear  for  many  years,  these  expectations  must  be  borne 
in  mind.  In  buying  a  separator  for  creamery  use,  both 
the  maximum  and  the  minimum  quantities  of  milk  for 
different  seasons  of  the  year  should  be  considered. 

58.  Supplies  for  repairing  purposes.  —  The  obtaining 
of  supplies  without  difficulty  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant considerations  in  buying  a  separator,  and  this 
point  should  be  especially  emphasized  in  localities  where 
transportation  facilities  are  limited.  Most  of  the  manu- 
facturers have  supply  centers  in  many  sections,  so  that 
in  case  of  a  breakdown  new  parts  can  be  obtained 
quickly.  Some  dealers  in  separators  carry  a  stock  of 
supplies. 

59.  Other  factors.  — The  other  factors  to  be  considered 
need  little  discussion.  They  are  :  preference  for  certain 
makes ;  price ;  amount  of  power  required  for  operation ; 
accessibility  to  parts,  and  number  of  parts  to  be  cleaned  ; 
simplicity  of  entire  construction ;  indication  of  durabil- 
ity ;  efficiency,  as  shown  in  the  amount  of  milk-fat  left 
in  the  skimmed-milk  and  in  the  ability  of  the  machine  to 
separate  the  guaranteed  number  of  pounds  of  whole  milk 
an  hour. 


80 


THE  BOOK   OF  BUTTER 


THE    LOCATION   OF   A   CREAM  SEPARATOR 

The  location  of  a  separator  in  a  creamery  is  not  so 
difficult  as  the  finding  of  a  suitable  place  for  the  machine 
on  some  farms.     The  two  main  considerations  in  either 


The  barn  is  not  a  desirable  location  for  a  separator. 


case  are  sanitation  and  convenience.  The  separator 
should  be  placed  in  such  a  position  that  during  the  period 
of  separation  the  milk  and  the  cream  will  not  come  in 
contact  with  bad  odors  and  sources  of  contamination  from 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


81 


micro-organisms.     In    creameries    or    other    large    dairy 
plants,  no  such  sources  of  trouble  should  exist. 

60.  In  the  cow  stable.  — On  farms,  separators  are  often 
placed  in  barns  and  in  some  cases  behind  the  cows,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  39.  Under  no  circumstances  should  a 
separator  be  located  in  such  a  position,  even  though  it  is 
convenient  to  the  cows,  to  the  calf-pens,  and  to  the  pig- 
pens where  the  skimmed-milk  is  fed. 

61.  In  the  kitchen.  —  There  are  probably  more  hand 
separators  placed  in  the  kitchen  than  in  any  other  one 
place  on  the  farm,  especially  for  the  winter.  The  kitchen 
is  a  comfortable 
place  in  which  to 
work,  and  it  is  near 
the  source  of  hot 
water,  which  is  ab- 
solutely essential 
in  the  proper  care 
of  dairy  products. 
The  woodshed  is 
also  usually  near 
the  source  of  hot 
water  and  is  likewise  a  convenient  place  for  a  separator. 
Either  the  kitchen  or  the  woodshed  may  be  used  with  sat- 
isfactory results  if  the  floor  is  sufficiently  solid  to  prevent 
vibration  of  the  machine  when  it  is  in  operation,  and  if 
proper  precaution  is  exercised  in  ventilation  and  in  the  pre- 
vention of  such  odors  as  those  coming  from  burned  bacon, 
cabbage,  and  onions.  The  one  great  objection  to  handling 
dairy  products  in  the  kitchen,  which  is  often  the  living 
room  of  the  house,  is  the  danger  of  spreading  pathogenic 
organisms,  in  case  any  member  of  the  family  has  a  conta- 
gious disease.      It  is  preferable,  therefore,  to  have  the 


Fk;.  40.  —  A  couveuieut  and  inexpensive  build- 
ing in  which  to  make  farm  butter.  The 
gasoline  engine  is  in  the  lean-to. 


82 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


machine  in  a  separate  room  or  building,  even  if  it  is  nec- 
essary to  take  the  movable  parts  to  the  kitchen  for 
cleaning. 

62.  In  a  milkhouse. — A  separate  milkhouse,  or  dairy 
building,  is  recommended  when  the  dairy  herds  are 
larger  than  the  average,  which  is  probably  less  than  ten 
cows,  if  cream  is  separated  on  the  farm ;  when  cream  of 
a  special  grade  is  being  produced ;   when  conditions   in 


Fig.  41.  —  A  satisfactory  building  in  which  milk  may  be  handled  in  a 
sanitary  way,  and  a  good  location  for  a  separator  and  churn. 

the  house  are  too  crowded ;  or  when  it  is  desirable 
to  use  a  power-driven  separator.  Examples  of  neat 
and  simple  buildings  are  shown  in  Figs.  40  and  41.  The 
dairy  house  in  Fig.  40  is  a  plain  building  with  unfinished 
interior.  It  is  twelve  by  sixteen  feet  in  size,  and  the  cost 
of  construction,  according  to  the  owner's  statement,  in 
1913  was  about  $65.  The  drainage  is  through  a  trap 
into  a  pipe  leading  to  a  gravel  bed.     This  building  houses 


CREAM   SEPARATION 


83 


a  complete  outfit  for  making  butter,  including  a  cream 
separator.  The  building  in  Fig.  41  is  a  little  more  expen- 
sive and  is  better  finished.     The  view  of  it  in  Fig.   42 


Interior  view  of  the  building  shown  in  Fig.  41. 


shows  a  brick  veneer  that  makes  cleaning  a  little  easier 
than  when  the  interior  of  the  building  is  unfinished.  The 
size  of  this  building  is  ten  feet  six  inches  by  fourteen  feet. 


CHAPTER  VI 

GRADING   MILK    AND    CREAM,    AND 
NEUTRALIZING  ACIDITY 

The  grading  of  any  commodity  is  not  only  good  itself, 
but  it  sets  standards  and  ideals  that  are  likely  to  influence 
one's  action  in  other  directions.  The  idea  of  grades  and  of 
definite  packs  has  now  become  well  established  in  agri- 
culture, and  the  application  of  it  will  spread.  Modern 
marketing  is  largely  a  question  of  grades  and  packs. 

GRADING    CREAM   AND   MILK 

The  principle  of  paying  according  to  quality  is  as 
fundamental  to  good  business  in  buying  milk  and  cream 
as  it  is  in  buying  grain,  live-stock,  or  other  commodities. 
However,  the  practicability  of  buying  on  quality  must 
always  be  considered  even  though  the  principle  is  correct. 
Such  conditions  as  the  amount  of  product  that  is  made, 
the  capacity  of  the  apparatus  in  the  creamery,  way  in 
which  the  cream  is  delivered  to  the  creamery,  difference 
in  price,  must  not  be  overlooked.  When  only  a  few 
hundred  pounds  of  butter  are  made  a  day,  it  is  not 
possible  to  handle  more  than  one  grade.  It  pays  to  grade 
in  a  big  creamery  where  there  are  two  or  more  ripening 
vats,  where  there  is  enough  butter  in  each  grade  to  handle 
in  the  normal  way,  and  when  the  difference  in  price 
warrants  the  additional  expense. 

84 


GRADING    MILK   AND    CREAM  85 

63.  History.  —  Cream  was  first  graded  about  1905. 
In  most  of  the  smaller  creameries,  the  grading  has  con- 
sisted in  not  accepting  the  poor  goods,  thus  leaving  only 
one  grade.  In  many  of  the  large  centralizer  creameries, 
several  methods  have  been  tried.  The  first  method 
consisted  of  the  collection  of  farm-separated  cream  by 
agents  in  various  towns.  These  agents  were  usually 
store-keepers.  When  the  farmer  took  his  cream  to  the 
store,  the  agent  weighed  and  sampled  it,  putting  the 
sample  in  a  small  screw-top  bottle.  Then  he  either 
dropped  it  into  the  can  of  cream  into  which  the  farmer's 
cream  had  been  poured,  or  placed  it  in  a  rack  which  fitted 
in  the  neck  of  the  can.  When  the  cream  reached  the 
factory,  which  may  have  been  as  far  as  400  or  500  miles 
away,  it  was  graded  by  the  butter-maker  according  to 
taste  and  smell.  The  percentage  of  fat  was  also  con- 
sidered in  the  grading,  for  cream  containing  less  than  25 
per  cent  fat  was  difficult  to  pasteurize  and  churn.  It 
is  apparent  that  this  method  of  grading  could  not  be 
satisfactory,  because  the  good  and  bad  cream  were 
mixed ;  also  the  average  small  collector  is  not  a  good 
judge.  In  other  creameries,  where  the  cream  was  collected 
by  route  drivers,  a  poor  attempt  was  made  to  grade  on 
the  fat  basis  only,  for  these  men  Avere  not  good  judges  of 
cream.  The  route  drivers  weighed  and  sampled  the 
patron's  cream  and  then  poured  it  into  a  large  can  in  their 
wagons.  Still  other  creameries  had  collecting  stations 
larger  than  the  store  stations  described  above.  These 
operators  attempted  to  grade  the  cream.  By  the  time 
it  had  reached  the  creamery,  the  flavor  had  changed  often 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  first  grading  was  of  no  avail. 

64.  Practicable  methods  of  grading.  —  The  methods 
of  grading  milk  or  cream  have  varied,  and  in  many  cases 


86  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

they  have  been  difficult  to  put  into  practice.  The 
bacteriological  analyses  of  these  products  require  too  much 
time,  and  are  too  expensive.  The  acid  determination  may 
be  satisfactory  in  some  creameries.  In  such  cases,  the 
acidity  may  be  quickly  determined  as  follows :  With  a 
small  dipper  of  proper  size,  take  a  small  sample  of  cream 
and  pour  it  into  a  white  cup.  Then  with  another  dipper 
of  the  proper  size,  measure  some  tenth  normal  alkali 
solution  containing  the  indicator  and  put  it  into  the 
white  cup  with  the  cream.  If  there  is  more  than  .3  or  .4 
per  cent  lactic  acid  in  the  cream,  the  color  of  the  mixture 
will  remain  unchanged.  If  the  acidity  is  less  than  the 
fixed  limit,  a  pink  color  will  appear.  The  quickest  and 
best  method  of  grading  milk  and  cream  for  the  manu- 
facture of  butter  is  by  the  sense  of  taste  and  smell  of  a 
careful  operator. 

The  general  practice  now  in  both  small  and  large 
creameries  is  to  deliver  the  cream  to  the  factory  in  the 
farmers'  cans,  even  though  there  may  be  only  two  or  three 
gallons.  There  it  is  graded  by  the  butter-maker,  who  is 
the  best  fitted  to  judge  cream  by  taste  and  smell.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  butter  is  sold  largely  on  the 
quality  of  its  flavor.  It  is  logical,  therefore,  to  buy  the 
cream  on  the  basis  of  its  quality  or  flavor.  Very  often 
cream  may  be  sour  and  yet  it  is  better  than  goods  of 
lower  acidity.  On  the  other  hand,  the  high  acidity  is 
usually  accompanied  by  the  development  of  other  prod- 
ucts that  give  ''  off  "  flavors  to  the  butter. 

Many  creameries  have  only  two  grades  of  product. 
In  case  a  farmer  should  send  cream  too  poor  to  be 
classed  with  either  of  these  grades,  it  is  received  and  a 
message  concerning  its  quality  and  a  few  notes  about 
how  to  care  for  the  cream  is  sent  to  the  producer.     This 


GRADING  MILK  AND  CREAM  87 

very  poor  cream  is  saved  a  few  days  until  a  sufficient 
quantity  is  accumulated  to  make  a  churning.  Payment  is 
then  made  to  the  producers  on  the  basis  of  the  price 
received  for  the  butter. 

NEUTRALIZING    ACIDITY   IN    CREAM 

Very  sour  cream  is  not  desirable  in  the  manufacture 
of  butter.  Since  the  advent  of  the  hand  separator  and 
with  it  less  frequent  deliveries  of  cream,  there  has  been 
difficulty  in  getting  the  cream  to  the  butter  factory  in 
good  condition.  As  noted  previously,  the  lactic  acid  in 
butter  soon  causes  it  to  deteriorate.  The  logical  way  to 
decrease  the  acid  in  cream  is  to  neutralize  some  of  it. 
The  term  neutraUzation  when  applied  to  the  reduction  of 
acidity  in  cream  is  really  not  correct,  for  not  all  the  acid 
is  neutralized.  The  process  is  one  of  adjustment  of  the 
acidity.  This  aids  in  good  pasteurization  of  the  cream 
and  in  the  keeping  properties  of  the  butter. 

65.  History.  —  The  neutralizing  of  the  lactic  acid  in 
milk  is  practiced  by  some  cheese-makers.  A  product 
known  as  ^'viscogen"  was  used  by  Babcock  and  Rus- 
sell ^  to  restore  the  viscosity  of  pasteurized  cream  for 
table  use.  The  practice  of  neutralizing  the  acidity  of 
cream  for  the  manufacture  of  butter  has  been  general 
in  centralizer  creameries  for  about  ten  years.  In  connec- 
tion with  its  early  use,  McKay  ^  writes:  "As  far  as  I  know 
I  was  the  first  to  use  neutralizers  in  butter-making.  A 
number  of  years  ago  I  conducted  experiments  that  lasted 

1  Babcock,  S.  M.,  and  Russell,  H.  L.,  On  the  Restoration  of 
the  Consistency  of  Pasteurized  Milk  and  Cream.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta. 
Univ.  Wis.,  13th  Ann.  Rpt.,  p.  81,  1896. 

2  McKay,  G.  L.,  The  Use  of  Neutralizers,  N.  Y.  Prod.  Rev.  and 
Amer.  Cry.,  Vol.  39,  p.  366,  1914  and  1915. 


88  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

several  months,  using  various  kinds  of  alkalies.  A  large 
butter-manufacturing  firm  in  Omaha  was  the  first,  to 
my  knowledge,"  that  used  lime-water  connnercially  in  the 
manufacture  of  butter,"  There  is  reference,  however,  by 
Flint  ^  to  the  practice  of  retarding  the  development  of 
acidity  by  artificial  means  as  far  back  as  1869.  He  says 
''it  is  a  perfectly  harmless  addition  and  increases  the 
product  of  the  butter  and  improves  its  quality." 

66.  Neutralizing  agents.  —  Several  neutralizing  agents 
are  used  in  decreasing  the  acid-content  of  cream.  The 
most  important  are  sodium  carbonate  (Na2C03),  sodium 
bicarbonate  (XaHCOa),  salsoda  (Na2C03.  IOH2O),  calcium 
carbonate  (CaCOa),  calcium  oxide  (lime,  quicklime)  (CaO), 
calcium  hydroxide  (slacked  lime)  (Ca(OH3)2),  magnesium 
oxide  (magnesia)  (]\IgO),  and  magnesium  h^'droxide 
(Mg(0H)2).  These  calcium  and  magnesimn  compounds 
are  known  as  calcium  and  magnesium  limes. 

The  choice  of  a  neutralizing  agent  varies  in  the  different 
countries.  America  seems  to  favor  calcium  and  magnesium 
limes,  while  the  British  Empire  apparently  prefers  the 
soda  compounds.  One  difficulty  with  the  sodas  is  that 
they  produce  foaming,  by  liberation  of  CO2,  which  is  very 
annoying,  especially  when  the  vat  is  almost  full  of  cream. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  claimed  bj^  some  creamerj-  op- 
erators that  the  CO2  carries  with  it  some  of  the  "off" 
flavors  of  the  cream  which  may  be  beneficial. 

The  grade  of  lime  suitable  for  introduction  into  a  food 
product  should  be  the  best.  Most  calcium  limes  contain 
enough  magnesium,  which  has  a  greater  neutralizintr 
power  than  the  calcium  product  to  make  up  for  the  im- 
purities. One  pound  of  calcium  lime  will  neutralize  3.21 
pounds  of  lactic  acid,  on  page  268,  while  one  pound  of  mag- 

1  Flint,  Chas.  S.,  Milch  Cows  and  Dairy  Farming,  p.  235,  1869. 


GRADING  MILK  AND  CREAM  gQ 

nesium  lime  will  neutralize  4.25  pounds  of  lactic  acid. 
This  shows  the  comparative  strengths  of  these  two  limes. 
67.  Advisability  of  neutralizing  cream.  —  So  far  as 
known,  there  is  nothing  deleterious  to  health  in  the  process 
of  adding  lime  or  lime-water  to  a  food  product,  such  as 
sour  cream;  but  the  practice  opens  a  field  for  discussion. 
The  principle  of  letting  a  product  deteriorate  so  that  it 
must  be  remade  is  wrong.  It  is  not  conducive  to  perma- 
nent dairying.  In  fact,  it  encourages  carelessness.  In 
many  new  dairy  regions,  where  not  many  cows  are  kept, 
possibly  this  method  of  handling  cream  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  butter  must  be  tolerated  until  a  better  one  can  be 
adopted.  On  the  other  hand,  the  economic  side  must  be 
reckoned  with  when  the  situation  as  it  now  stands  is  con- 
sidered. Out  of  3,500  creameries  in  the  United  States 
probably  not  over  500  are  in  position  to  handle  sweet 
cream  entirely  and  at  least  75  per  cent  of  the  butter  is 
made  from  cream  that  varies  in  sourness,  some  being 
exceedingly  high  in  acidity  before  it  reaches  the  creamery. 


CHAPTER  VIT 
PASTEURIZATION 

Pasteurization  is  the  process  of  heating  a  Hquid  to  such 
a  temperature  and  for  such  a  period  of  time  that  nearly 
all  the  micro-organisms  in  it  are  killed.  It  also  includes 
the  subsequent  rapid  cooling  of  the  liquid. 

68.  History.  —  Pasteurization  was  developed  by  Louis 
Pasteur,  from  whom  it  derives  its  name.  In  the  years 
1860  to  1864^  this  eminent  scientist  discovered  that  wine 
fermentation  is  due  to  micro-organisms,  and  he  found 
that  if  the  wine  were  heated  to  a  certain  temperature  and 
cooled  again,  the  fermentation  stopped.  In  1886  Soxhlet  * 
applied  this  method  of  destroying  bacteria  to  milk  and  to 
certain  milk  products.  Pasteurization  is  not  sterilization, 
as  shown  in  Chapter  XVI.  Nevertheless,  efficient  pasteur- 
ization will  kill  at  least  99.9  per  cent  of  the  micro- 
organisms. 

Pasteurization  was  first  accomplished  by  the  "  holder  " 
method.  In  this  system  all  the  milk  or  cream  was  heated 
at  one  time  in  a  receptacle,  and  held  for  a  definite  period 
at  a  certain  temperature,  then  it  was  cooled.  Russell  ^ 
was  one  of  the  first  to  study  the  application  of  pasteur- 
ization to  commercial  dairying.     He  began  his  studies 

^  Rosenau,  M.  J.,  Pasteurization.  U.  S.  Hygienic  Labora- 
tory, Bui.  41,  p.  591,  1908. 

2  Russell,  H.  L.,  Pasteurization  of  Milk  and  Cream  for  Direct 
Consumption,  Wis.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  44,  1895. 

90 


PASTEURIZATION  91 

about  1893.  In  1894  or  1895  he  persuaded  Cornish, 
Curtis,  &  Green  to  build  one  of  the  first  "  holder  "  pasteur- 
izers made  in  this  country.  About  the  same  time  Strauss 
of  New  York  City  began  to  pasteurize  milk  under  the 
general  direction  of  Dr.  Freeman.  This  milk  was  for  the 
Strauss  charity  infant  feeding. 

Continuous  method.  —  The  dairy  industry  seemed  to 
demand  a  faster  method  of  pasteurization,  which  could  be 
accomplished  by  the  continuous  method.  As  early  as 
1896,  A.  Jensen,  formerly  of  the  Jensen  Creamery  Ma- 
chinery Company,  perfected  a  continuous-flow  pasteur- 
izer, at  Beloit,  Kansas.  This. machine  was  first  exhibited 
at  the  National  Creamery  Butter-makers'  Association 
convention  in  1898  at  Lincoln,  Nebraska.  The  present 
continuous-flow  Jensen  pasteurizer  was  first  made  in 
1902.  About  this  time  the  Reid,  Farrington,  Miller 
machines  and  Sturgis  &  Burns  machine  were  put  on  the 
market.  Two  or  three  years  later  the  Progress,  Simplex, 
Triumph,  and  other  pasteurizers  were  invented. 

The  regenerative  method  of  continuous  pasteurization 
was  the  next  step  in  the  development  of  pasteurizers. 
This  process  consists  in  conducting  the  cold  milk  or  cream 
into  the  machine  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  heated  by  the 
outflowing  hot  milk  or  cream.  It  is  said  that  efficient 
regenerative  pasteurization  employs  only  about  10  per 
cent  as  much  heat  by  steam  as  the  old  method.  It  is, 
therefore,  much  more  economical  than  the  first  system  of 
continuous  pasteurization.  Lehfelt  ^  of  Germany  was 
the  inventor  of  the  regenerative  system.  Willmann  ^ 
perfected  this  system  in  1899  while  in  the  factory  of  his 
father-in-law,  Edward  Ahlborn,  Ilildesheim,  Germany. 
Later,  Willmann  came  to  America. 

^  Willmann,  J.,  Letter  to  author,  1917. 


92  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

**  Holder  "  method.  —  The  real  test  of  most  types  of 
machinery  is  efficiency.  After  approximately  ten  years  of 
experience  with  continuous-flow  pasteurizers,  the  dairy 
industry  found  that  the  vat  or  "  holder  "  method  was 
more  efficient.  During  this  time  the  old  Potts  pasteurizer, 
which  was  first  made  in  1899  to  1901,  was  not  much 
employed.  The  first  vat  pasteurizer  after  the  Potts 
machine,  and  used  more  extensively  than  the  Potts 
apparatus,  was  the  Jensen  Vertical  Pasteurizer  and 
Ripener  ^  which  came  on  the  market  in  the  same  year. 
The  Jensen  Peerless  was  developed  at  Ferndale,  California, 
in  1904.  In  1908  The  Creamery  Package  Manufacturing 
Company,  Chicago,  Illinois,  began  to  sell  the  Wizard, 
which  at  first  had  a  continuous  disk  heating  and  cooling 
device.  Later  the  disk  was  replaced  by  a  coil  tube. 
D.  H.  Burrell  and  Company,  Little  Falls,  New  York, 
placed  the  Simplex  pasteurizer  and  ripener  on  the  market 
in  1905  or  1906.  This  machine  had  an  oscillating  tube 
heating  and  cooling  device.  In  about  1913  the  Burrell 
concern  replaced  this  pasteurizer  and  ripener  with  a  vat 
which  has  a  spray  mechanism  for  heating  and  cooling. 

69.  Flavor  improvement.  —  Financially,  in  many  in- 
stances, the  improvement  of  flavor  is  the  greatest  advan- 
tage of  pasteurization  to  the  butter  industry ;  for  if  the 
flavor  of  the  butter  is  improved,  the  effect  is  immediately 
noticeable  in  a  higher  price.  It  is  considered  by  many 
manufacturers  that  when  most  of  the  bacteria  are  killed, 
the  cause  of  the  ''  off  "  flavors  is  removed.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  must  be  recognized  that  pasteurization  is  a 
process  of  killing  micro-organisms  and  not  of  extracting 
flavors,  so  that  when  old  cream  and  poor  milk  in  which  the 
bacteria  have  been  growing  and  producing  their  undesira- 
1  Jensen,  A.,  Letter  to  author,  1917. 


PASTEURIZATION  93 

ble  flavors  is  pasteurized,  there  is  not  so  much  possibility 
of  flavor  improvement  as  when  the  milk  or  cream  is  fresh. 

According  to  Rogers,  Berg,  and  Davis/  cream  of  good 
quality  may  be  efficiently  pasteurized,  from  the  bacterio- 
logical viewpoint,  if  the  temperature  is  raised  momentarily 
to  71°  C.  (160°  F.).  They  state  that  this  is  near  the  limit 
of  safety,  and  that  if  the  bacterial-content  of  the  raw 
cream  is  high,  a  temperature  of  74°  to  77°  C.  (165°  to 
170°  F.)  must  be  used  to  secure  uniform  flavor.  Their 
results,  which  were  based  on  data  of  scoring  butter  when 
40  and  150  days  old,  show  that  the  flavor  of  the  product 
made  from  pasteurized  cream  was  higher  than  the  raw 
cream  butter.  Judging  from  the  bacteria  count,  this 
butter  was  made  from  sour  or  very  nearly  sour  cream. 

Hurziker^  declares  that  butter  made  from  pasteurized 
cream  shows  a  decided  improvement  over  that  from  raw 
cream  of  the  same  quality.  He  evidently  included  both 
sw^eet  and  sour  cream  in  this  statement.  Later  he  ^ 
shows  that  in  thirty  days  sour  raw^  cream  butter 
deteriorates  two  and  one-half  points  more  than  butter 
that  has  been  properly  pasteurized.  Again  Hunziker  ^ 
writes  :  ''  The  experiment  embraces  the  pasteurization  of 
cream  by  three  difterent  processes  of  pasteurization ; 
namely,  vat  pasteurization  at  145°  F.  holding  for  20 
minutes,  flash  pasteurization  at  160°  to  165°  F.  and  flash 
pasteurization  at  180°  to  185°  F.  The  cream  for  four  churn- 

1  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Berg,  W.N.,  and  Davis,  Brooke  J.,  The  Tem- 
perature of  Pasteurization  for  Butter  Making,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Cir.  189,  1912. 

2  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  Investigations  in  Dairy  Manufactures, 
Purdue  Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  28th  Ann.  Rpt.,  p.  39,  1915. 

3  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  Pasteurization,  N.  Y.  Prod.  Rev.  and  Amer. 
Cry.,  Vol.  42,  No.  6,  p.  236,  1916. 

"  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  Cream  Improvement,  Purdue  Univ.  Agri. 
Exp.  Sta.,  29th  Ann.  Rpt.,  p.  34,  1916. 


94 


THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 


ings  was  placed  in  the  vat  and  thoroughly  mixed.  The 
cream  was  then  divided  into  four  lots.  One  lot  was  churned 
without  being  pasteurized,  or  'raw';  one  lot  pasteurized 
in  vat  at  temperature  of  145° F. and  held  20  minutes;  one 
lot  was  pasteurized  at  a  temperature  of  1G0°  to  165°  F.  in  a 
Jensen  flash  pasteurizer ;  and  one  lot  was  pasteurized  at 
180°  to  185°  F.  in  a  Jensen  flash  pasteurizer.  The  following 
table  shows  the  average  scores  of  18  experiments,  in  which 
the  butter  was  held  90  days  : 

Table  XIV 


Fresh 


30  Days 


60  Days 


90  Days 


Raw  cream 
Pasteurized 


145°  F.  —  20  min. 
165°  F.  —  Flash 
185°  F.  —  Flash 


87.63 
90.66 

87.96 

87.12 


85.46 
89.44 

87.48 
87.78 


85.56 
89.37 
88.13 
88.16 


84.75 
89.26 
87.94 
87.97 


*'  The  following  table  shows  the  average  scores  of  33 
experiments  in  which  the  butter  was  held  for  30  days  : 


Table  XV 


Fresh   . 
30  days 


Pasteurized 
Raw  Cream         145°  F. 
20  Min. 


88.48 

86.03 


91.02 

89.82 


Pasteurized 
165°  F. 


89.45 

88.25 


Pasteurized 
185°  F. 


87.78 

88.18 


"  The  above  figures  indicate  that,  in  case  of  sour, 
gathered  cream  that  is  not  neutralized  before  pasteuriza- 
tion, pasteurization  at  145°  F.  for  20  minutes  is  the  most 
satisfactory  process  from  the  standpoint  of  germ-killing 
efficiency  and  quality  of  butter," 


PASTEURIZATION  95 

An  important  research  on  pasteurization  in  relation 
to  flavor  of  butter  was  conducted  by  Lee.^  His  conclusion 
is  quite  in  contrast  with  the  above  statements.  He  says  : 
''  Pasteurization  does  not  improve  the  quality  of  butter 
made  from  sour  farm  skimmed  cream."  Mortensen, 
Gaessler  and  Cooper  ^  state  :  *'  Pasteurization  of  either 
sweet  or  sour  cream  improves  the  flavor  of  the  resulting 
butter."  Evidently  the  improvement  is  only  slight,  for 
in  the  same  bulletin  Hammer  writes :  ''  From  the  results 
obtained  in  the  present  study  together  with  the  data 
reported  by  Lee,  it  seems  reasonable  to  conclude  that 
pasteurization  of  cream  does  not  materially  improve  the 
keeping  qualities  of  the  butter  made  therefrom."  Later 
he  concludes,  "  Butter  made  from  raw  cream  had  prac- 
tically as  good  keeping  qualities  as  butter  made  from 
pasteurized  cream."  Farrington  and  Godfrey  ^  found 
that  pasteurized  cream  butter  holds  its  good  qualities 
much  longer  than  that  made  from  raw  cream.  The 
cream  in  these  experiments  was  sweet  when  pasteurized. 
Rogers,  Berg,  Potteiger,  and  Davis  ^  say  that  butter 
made  from  sweet  pasteurized  cream  keeps  much  better 
than  that  made  from  similar  cream  without  pasteur- 
ization. This  statement  calls  attention  to  the  advantage 
of  pasteurization,  and  it  also   places  emphasis  on   the 

^  Lee,  Carl  E.,  Pasteurization  as  a  Factor  in  Making  Butter 
from  Cream  Skimmed  on  the  Farm,  Univ.  of  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta., 
Bui.  138,  1909. 

2  Mortensen,  M.,  Gaessler,  W.  G.,  and  Cooper,  W.  H.,  2d  part. 
Hammer,  B.  W.,  The  Pasteurization  of  Cream  for  Buttermaking, 
Agri.  Expt.  Sta.  Iowa  State  Col.,  Bui.  156,  1914. 

^  Farrington,  E.  H.,  and  Godfrey,  J.  H.,  Pasteurized  Cream 
Butter,  Univ.  of  Wis.,  13th  Ann.  Rpt.,  pp.  138-143,  1902. 

"*  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Berg,  W.  N.,  Potteiger,  C.  R.,  and  Davis, 
B.  J.,  Factors  Influencing  the  Change  in  Flavor  of  Storage 
Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  162,  p.  69,  1913. 


96  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

selection  of  sweet  cream  in  making  butter  of  good  keep- 
ing properties. 

70.  Killing  pathogenic  micro-organisms  in  cream.  — 
The  two  diseases  most  readily  transmitted  by  butter  are 
typhoid  and  tuberculosis.  Typhoid  fever  is  a  disease  of 
man.  On  the  other  hand,  tuberculosis  is  common  to 
man  and  beast,  which,  together  with  its  greater  prevalence 
and  viability,  makes  it  to  be  feared  far  more  than  typhoid. 
The  spread  of  tuberculosis  by  butter  has  been  studied  by 
many  investigators.  The  table  on  page  97  by  Briscoe 
and  MacNeal  ^  shows  the  results  of  the  research  on  this 
important  subject  up  to  1908. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  table  shows  that  13.2 
per  cent  of  the  1233  samples  of  butter  contained  the 
Bacterium  tuberculosis.  According  to  researches  by 
Briscoe  and  MacNeal  themselves,  two  of  six  samples  of 
butter  contained  tubercle  bacilli  virulent  to  guinea  pigs. 
Later  Briscoe  ^  reports  the  duration  of  life  of  the  Bacterium 
tuberculosis  in  butter,  as  found  by  other  investigators,  to 
vary  from  four  days  to  six  months.  His  own  work  showed 
tubercle  organisms  to  be  alive  at  the  end  of  274  days  at 
10°  C.  below  zero,  and  4°  and  20°  C.  above  zero.  This 
shows  that  the  Bacterium  tuberculosis  is  just  as  active 
after  the  butter  has  been  held  in  cold  storage  as  when  it 
has  been  kept  at  higher  temperatures.  Mohler,  Washburn, 
and  Rogers^  state  :  "  The  work  recorded  in  our  investiga- 
tions, as  well  as  that  by  contemporaneous  writers,  proves 

*  Briscoe,  Chas.  F.,  and  MacNeal,  W.  J.,  Tuberculosis  of 
Farm  Animals,  Univ.  of  111.  A^i.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  149,  1911. 

2  Briscoe,  Chas.  F.,  Fate  of  Tubercle  Bacilli  Outside  the 
Animal  Body,  Univ.  of  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  161,  1912. 

3  Mohler,  John  R.,  Washburn,  Henry  .J.,  and  Rogers,  Lore  A., 
The  ViabiUty  of  Tubercle  BacilH  in  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri., 
B.  A.  I.,  Ann.  Rpt.,  pp.  179-191,  1909. 


PASTEURIZATION  97 

Table  XVI  —  Bacillus  Tuberculosis  in  Market  Butter 


No. 

Author 

H 
< 

Q 

Place 

4 

n 

«  So 

Remarks 

1 

Brusaferro 

1890 

Turin 

9 

1 

11.1 

2 

Roth 

1894 

Zurich 

20 

2 

10.0 

Microscopic  method 

3 

Obermuller 

1895 

Berlin 

13 

8 

61.0 

4 

Schuchardt 

1896 

Marburg 

42 

0 

00.0 

5 

Obermuller 

1897 

Berlin 

14 

14 

100. 

16  tested,  2  lost 

G 

7 

Groning 
Himesch 

1897 
1897 

Hamburg 

Wien 

17 

? 

8 
0 

47.0 
0.0 

Reported  by  Markl 

8 

Rabinowitsch 

1897 

Berlin 

30 

0 

0.0 

9 

Rabinowitsch 

1897 

Philadelphia 

50 

0 

0.0 

10 

Petri 

1897 

Berlin 

102 

33 

32.3 

11 

Horman  and 

1897 

Berlin 

10 

3 

30.0 

12 

Morganroth 
Rabinowitsch 

1899 

Berlin 

15 

2 

13.3 

First  Series 

13 

Rabinowitsch 

1899 

Berlin 

? 

? 

87.2 

Second  Series 

14 

Rabinowitsch 

1899 

Berlin 

15 

15 

100. 

Third  Series 

15 

Rabinowitsch 

1899 

Berlin 

19 

0 

0.0 

Fourth  Series 

16 

Obermuller 

1899 

Berlin 

10 

4 

40.0 

17 

Korn 

1899 

Freiburg 

17 

4 

23.5 

18 

Ascher 

1899 

Konigsberg 

27 

2 

7.4 

19 

Tager 

1899 

Konigsberg 

3 

1 

33.3 

20 

Coggi 

1899 

Milan 

100 

12 

12.0 

21 

Weissenfeld 

1899 

Bonn 

32 

3 

9.4 

22 

Grassberger 

1899 

Wien 

10 

0 

0.0 

23 

Herbert 

1899 

Tubinger 

43 

0 

0.0 

24 

Herbert 

1899 

Wurttemberg 

58 

0 

0.0 

Pseudo-tuberculosis 
5  per  cent 

25 

Herbert 

1899 

Berlin 

20 

0 

0.0 

Pseudo-tuberculosis 
8  per  cent 

26 

Herbert 

1899 

Munchen 

5 

0 

0.0 

Pseudo-tuberculosis 
4  per  cent 

27 

Abenhausen 

1900 

Marburg 

39 

0 

0.0 

28 

Hellstrom 

1900 

Helsingfors 

8 

1 

12.5 

12  samples,  4  lost 

29 

Bonhoff 

1900 

Marburg 

28 

0 

0.0 

39  samples,  11  lost 

30 

Pawlowsky 

1900 

Kiew 

23 

1 

4.3 

31 

Tobler 

1901 

Zurich 

12 

2 

16.7 

32 

Lorenz 

1901 

Dorpat 

30 

0 

0.0 

33 

Markl 

1901 

Wien 

43 

0 

0.0 

34 

Herr  und  Beninde 

1901 

Breslau 

52 

6 

11.1 

Two  are  doubtful 

35 

Aujeszkj' 

1902 

Budapest 

17 

3 

17.6 

36 

Thu 

1902 

Christiana 

16 

0 

0.0 

37 

Teichert 

1904 

Rosen 

40 

12 

30.0 

38 

Reitz 

1906 

Stuttgart 

94 

8 

8.5 

Butter  from  88 
dairies 

39 

Eber 

1908 

Leipsic 

150 

18 

12.0 

Totals 

1233 

163 

13.2 

98  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

that  constant  storage  in  icy  temperature  does  not  destroy 
the  virulence  of  butter  which  contains  dangerous  tubercle 
bacilli." 

Lumsden  ^  states  that  Bruck  found  that  Bacillus 
typhosus  would  live  as  long  as  twenty-seven  days  in  milk. 
Lumsden  adds,  "  Under  ordinary  conditions,  however, 
it  would  seem  that  the  presence  of  many  vigorous  sapro- 
phytes, the  washing  out  of  the  large  numbers  of  bacteria 
in  the  buttermilk,  and  salting,  would  lessen  the  chances 
of  the  B.  typhosus  remaining  in  the  butter,  and  it  is 
improbable  that  butter  frequently  plays  much  part  in 
the  spread  of  typhoid  fever." 

Lazer  ^  reports  that  Heim  found  Bacillus  typhosus  active 
after  remaining  in  butter  three  weeks.  However,  Lazer 
himself  did  not  find  this  organism  active  on  the  seventh 
day.  Lazer  ^  also  states  that  the  cholera  micro-organism 
could  not  be  recognized  after  remaining  in  butter  five  days. 

71.  Pathogenic  micro-organisms  in  margarine.  — 
Margarine  also  contains  the  dreaded  organism  of  tuber- 
culosis. Briscoe  and  MacNeal  ^  show  the  results  of  seven 
studies  along  this  line,  in  the  table  on  page  99. 

It  w^ould  appear  that  not  so  many  organisms  of 
tuberculosis  are  in  margarine  as  in  butter.  This  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  many  brands  of  margarine 
are  composed  largely  of  vegetable  oils,  and  also  it 
should  be  noted  that  many  of  the  above  analyses  were 
made  before  the  days  of  pasteurization. 

1  Lumsden,  Leslie  L.,  The  Milk  Supply  of  Cities  in  Relation 
to  the  Epidemiology  of  Typhoid  Fever,  U.  S.  Hygiene  Lab., 
Bui.  41,  p.  151,  1908. 

2  Lazer,  H.,  The  Behavior  of  Bacteria  of  Typhoid  Fever, 
Tuberculosis  and  Cholera  in  Butter,  Exp.  Sta.  Rec,  Vol.  3,  p.  423, 
(abs.  from  Zeitsch.  of  Hygiene,  10,  pp.  51,3-530),  1891. 

3  Briscoe,  Clias.  F.,  and  MacNeal,  W.  J.,  Tuberculosis  of 
Farm  Animals,  Univ.  of  III.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  149,  p.  329,  1911. 


PASTEURIZATION 


99 


Table   XVII  —  Bacillus   Tuberculosis   in   Oleomargarine 


No 


Author 

Date 

Morgenroth 

1899 

Annette 

1900 

Annette 

1900 

Bonhoff 

1901 

Markl 

1901 

Tim 

1902 

Eber 

1908 

Place 


Berlin 
Berlin 
Liverpool 
Marburg 

Wien 

Christiana 

Leipsic 


Sam- 

Sam- 

Per 

ples 

ples 

Cent 

Ex- 

Posi- 

Posi- 

amined 

tive 

tive 

10 

8 

80.0 

15 

0 

0.0 

13 

1 

8.0 

3 

0 

0.0 

3 

0 

0.0 

15 

0 

0.0 

150 

0 

0.0 

209 

9 

4.3 

Remarks 


Nearly  8  % 

7  samples, 

4  lost 


From  4 
factories 


72.  Killing  pathogenic  micro-organisms  in  skimmed- 
milk.  —  The  skimmed-milk,  which  is  an  important  by- 
product of  the  butter  industry,  is  also  a  carrier  of  disease 
germs.  In  this  case  the  infection  is  spread  to  Hve-stock 
rather  than  to  man,  for  in  the  creamery  in  which  the 
milk  is  separated  and  the  skimmed-milk  is  returned  to 
the  farmer,  the  probability  is  that  tuberculosis  or  foot- 
and-mouth  disease  will  be  carried  to  uninfected  herds. 
This  is  especially  true  if  the  milk  from  diseased  cows  has 
been  received  at  the  butter  factory.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  practice  in  creameries  is  to  run  the 
skimmed-milk  into  a  common  supply  tank  from  which  it  is 
drawn  and  taken  back  to  the  farms  for  the  calves,  pigs, 
and  poultry.  It  is  evident  that  skimmed-milk  should  be 
treated  to  prevent  this  dissemination  of  disease.  Dotterrer 
and  Breed  ^  write  :  *'  The  best  procedure  is  to  return  the 
skim-milk  to  the  patrons'  cans  at  a  temperature  high 

^  Dotterrer,  W.  D.,  and  Breed,  Robert  S.,  The  Pasteurization 
of  Dairy  By-Products,  N.  Y.  State  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  412, 
pp.  582-590,  1915. 


100  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

enough  to  remain  above  145°  F.  for  30  minutes.  This 
pasteurizes  the  milk  in  the  final  container  and  increases 
the  keeping  qualities  of  the  skim-milk." 

If  the  skimmed-milk  is  cooled  by  the  creamery,  it  is 
put  into  cans  that  are  not  thoroughly  scalded  and  imme- 
diately the  pasteurized  skimmed-milk  is  seeded  by  the 
organisms  that  are  already  in  the  can.  The  skimmed- 
milk  should  be  cooled  by  the  farmer  after  he  returns 
home,  for  it  will  remain  sweet  much  longer  than  if  it  is 
not  cooled.  It  should  keep  sweet  at  least  twenty-four 
hours.  It  is  well  to  note  the  fact  that  the  creamery  can- 
not afford  to  cool  the  skimmed-milk,  that  is  returned  to 
the  farmer.  The  patron  is  the  person  who  profits  most 
by  the  pasteurization  of  the  skimmed-milk,  and  he  should 
be  willing  to  cool  it  in  case  he  wishes  to  feed  it 
sweet.  If  he  is  not  willing  to  cool  it,  he  ought  at 
least  not  to  complain  about  it.  Dotterrer  and  Breed  ^ 
refer  to  the  fact  that  the  Pennsylvania  law  requires  the 
heating  of  dairy  by-products  to  a  temperature  of  at  least 
178°  F.;  Iowa,  185°  F. ;  Minnesota,  180°  F. ;  while 
Michigan  requires  185°  F.  or  145°  F.  for  thirty  minutes. 
According  to  Rosenau  ^  the  temperature  necessary  to 
kill  pathogenic  bacteria  is  140°  F.  (60°  C.)  for  twenty 
minutes.  Russell  and  Hastings  ^  say  that  160°  F.  or  above 
for  one  minute  is  sufficient  to  destroy  the  virulence  of 
bovine  tubercle  cultures.     These  are  the  two  reasons  for 

^  Dotterrer,  W.  D.,  and  Breed,  Robert  S.,  The  Pasteurization 
of  Dairy  By-Products,  N.  Y.  State  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  412, 
pp.  582-590,  1915. 

2  Rosenau,  M.  J.,  Pasteurization,  Hygienic  Lab.,  Bui.  41, 
p.  598,  1908. 

3  Russell,  H.  L.,  and  Hastings,  E.  G.,  Effeet  of  Short  Periods 
of  Exposure  to  Heat  on  Tubercle  Bacilli  in  Milk,  Univ.  of  Wis. 
Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Ann.  Rpt.,  p.  192,  1904. 


PASTEURIZATION  lOl 

continuously  maintaining  the  higher  temperatures  as 
required  in  the  above  laws :  1 .  There  will  be  no  doubt 
about  the  proper  temperature  being  reached  to  kill  the 
bacteria ;  2.  The  Storch  test  ^  may  be  applied  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  temperature  has  been  raised  to  at  least 
178°  F. 

73.  Other  effects.  —  It  is  generally  considered  that  the 
pasteurization  of  the  cream  causes  the  buttermilk  to  whey- 
off,2  which  is  a  detriment  to  its  sale. 

Pasteurization  of  sour  cream  causes  a  greater  loss  of 
fat  in  the  buttermilk  than  if  the  cream  were  not  pasteur- 
ized. On  the  other  hand,  the  pasteurization  of  sweet 
cream  increases  its  churning  properties.  Farrington 
and  Russell  ^  state  :  "A  richer  buttermilk  was  obtained 
from  the  pasteurized  than  from  the  unpasteurized  churn- 
ings  in  hot  weather,  when  the  pasteurized  cream,  as  a 
rule,  w^as  not  so  easily  and  thoroughly  cooled  as  the  un- 
pasteurized. At  other  seasons,  when  both  churnings  were 
made  at  about  the  same  temperature,  there  was  not  much 
difference  in  the  amount  of  fat  left  in  the  two  buttermilks." 
Mortensen,  Gaessler,  and  Cooper  *  report  the  following : 
"  The  percentage  of  milk-fat  lost  in  the  buttermilk  when 
churning  raw  cream  is  slightly  greater  than  with  cream 
pasteurized  while  sweet.     Reversed  results  were  obtained 

1  Ross,  H.  E.,  Explanation  of  Boiled  Milk  Test,  A  Dairy 
Laboratory  Guide,  p.  18,  1910. 

2  Lee,  Carl  E.,  Pasteurization  as  a  Factor  in  Making  Butter 
from  Cream  Skimmed  on  the  Farm,  Univ.  of  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta., 
Bui.  138,  p.  368,  1909. 

3  Farrington,  E.  H.,  and  Russell,  H.  L.,  Pasteurization  as 
Applied  to  Buttermaking,  Univ.  of  Wis.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  69, 
p.  39,  1898. 

*  Mortensen,  M.,  Gaessler,  W.  G.,  and  Cooper,  W.  H.,  The 
Pasteurization  of  Cream  for  Buttermaking,  Agri.  Exp.  Sta. 
Iowa  State  Col.,  Bui.  156,  p.  15,  1914, 


102  THE   BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

when  sour  cream  was  pasteurized."  The  work  reported 
by  Farrell  ^  confirms  this  last  statement. 

It  is  usually  thought  that  when  sour  cream  is  pasteur- 
ized, the  high  heat  coagulates  it  and  some  fat  is  inclosed 
in  the  small  granules  of  curd.  In  this  way  a  greater 
amount  of  fat  is  lost  in  the  buttermilk  than  when  the 
cream  is  not  pasteurized,  or  when  the  cream  is  sweet 
when  pasteurized.  In  the  case  of  pasteurization  of 
sweet  cream,  the  viscosity  is  broken,  thus  making  it 
possible  for  the  fat  globules  to  collect  more  readily  than 
when  the  cream  has  not  been  heated.  Care  should  be 
exercised  to  prevent  the  temperatures  from  going  too 
high,  for  a  cooked  or  scorched  flavor  is  likely  to  be  im- 
parted to  the  butter.  However,  even  though  there  is  a 
distinct  scorched  flavor  in  cream  just  after  pasteurization, 
and  in  the  freshly  churned  butter,  in  most  cases  this 
flavor  w411  disappear  within  a  few  days. 

74.  Comparison  of  methods.  —  The  first  method  of 
pasteurization  was  the  "  holder "  or  intermittent.  It 
is  often  spoken  of  as  the  vat  method,  because  the  process 
may  be  conducted  in  the  ripening  vat.  The  demand  for 
speed  brought  forth  the  continuous  or  flash  system.  At 
present  there  are  many  machines  of  each  method,  varying 
in  style  and  size.  The  vats  for  the  "  holder  "  method 
vary  in  capacity  from  150  to  1200  gallons  an  hour.  Often 
the  large  creameries  have  them  especially  constructed  in 
larger  sizes  than  these.  The  continuous-flow  pasteurizers 
vary  from  75  to  800  gallons  an  hour. 

Operation.  —  The  flash  method  is  more  difficult  to 
operate  than  the  vat  system,  because  a  variation  in  the 
steam  pressure  and  the  difference  in  the  rate  at  which  the 

^  Farrell,  John  J.,  Pasteurization  of  Cream  for  Buttermaking, 
Albert  Lea  State  Cry.,  Bui.  63,  p.  15,  1916. 


PASTEURIZATION  103 

milk  or  cream  flows  into  the  machines  have  direct  effect 
on  the  temperature  of  the  pasteurized  medium.  Also,  at 
the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  each  run,  great  care  must 
be  used  in  the  continuous  method  of  applying  the  heat. 
The  temperature  should  not  go  below  176°  ¥.  because  the 
pasteurization  is  likely  not  to  be  efficient,  and  it  should 
not  be  permitted  to  go  above  185°  F.  for  fear  of  producing 
a  burnt  flavor.  In  actual  practice,  the  vat  or  "  holder  " 
method  is  likely  to  be  more  complete  than  the  continuous 
system,  because  the  heat  is  applied  for  a  longer  period  of 
time,  and  there  is  less  opportunity  for  carelessness. 

Efficiency.  —  The  question  as  to  which  is  the  more  effi- 
cient method  of  pasteurization  is  pertinent.  Hammer  ^ 
states  :  ''  The  method  of  vat  pasteurization  of  sour  cream 
at  temperatures  of  140°  to  145°  F.  for  20  minutes  some- 
times left  large  numbers  of  living  bacteria  present,  al- 
though the  percentage  killed  was  high.  After  pasteurizing 
sour  cream  with  the  flash  method  at  180°  or  185°  F.  only 
small  numbers  of  bacteria  were  found  in  a  living  condi- 
tion." It  should  be  noted  that  in  the  flash  method  a 
high  temperature  was  not  only  used,  but  so  long  as  this 
was  experimental  work,  this  temperature  was  undoubtedly 
maintained,  which  might  account  for  the  continuous 
method  giving  better  results  than  the  ''  holder  "  system.. 
In  the  same  publication  Mortensen,  Gaessler,  and  Cooper^ 
say :  "  Vat  pasteurization  seems  to  be  the  most  efficient 
method  of  sour  cream  pasteurization  for  improvement  of 
flavor."     This  conclusion  might  be  true  even  though  there 

1  Hammer,  B.  W.,  The  Pasteurization  of  Cream  for  Butter- 
making,  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.  Iowa  State  Col.,  Bui.  156,  2d  part,  p.  35, 
1914. 

2  Mortensen,  M.,  Gaessler,  W.  G.,  and  Cooper,  W.  H.,  The  Pas- 
teurization of  Cream  for  Buttermaking,  Agri.  Exp,  Sta.,  Bui.  156, 
1st  part,  p.  15,  1914. 


104  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

were  more  organisms  left  in  the  cream  of  the  vat  method, 
as  reported  by  Hammer/  for  the  number  of  bacteria  in 
cream  is  not  an  exact  nor  a  constant  measure  of  the  flavor 
of  butter.  INIortensen,  Gaessler,  and  Cooper  ^  also  found 
that  more  fat  was  lost  in  the  buttermilk  from  the  vat 
method  than  from  the  continuous  system  of  pasteurization. 

Pasteurization  of  cream  for  the  manufacture  of  butter 
may  be  conducted  in  a  different  way  from  handling  milk 
and  cream  for  consumption  as  such,  because  in  the  latter 
case  it  is  desirable  that  there  may  be  as  little  physical 
and  chemical  change  as  possible.  This  can  be  accom- 
plished at  the  lower  pasteurizing  temperatures  for  a 
longer  period,  as  in  the  vat  method.  However,  in  the 
manufacture  of  butter,  the  higher  temperatures  of  the 
continuous  method  may  be  used  very  satisfactorily.  In 
the  average  creamery  Avhere  the  deliveries  of  cream  are  not 
regular,  the  vat  method  is  more  convenient  than  the 
continuous  system.  Inasmuch  as  a  ripening  vat  must  be 
used  regardless  of  the  particular  method,  the  initial  invest- 
ment for  the  vat  pasteurizer  is  less  than  the  cost  of  the 
continuous  pasteurizer  plus  the  cream  ripener. 

75.  Notes.  —  In  operating  a  pasteurizer  many  per- 
plexing problems  arise  ;  such  as,  proper  speed,  sour  cream, 
and  thin  cream. 

Speed.  —  FarrelP  advises  tliat  in  operating  a  continuous 
pasteurizer  speed  is  important  in  many  machines,  for  it 

1  Hammer,  B.  W.,  The  Pasteurization  of  Cream  for  Butter- 
making,  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.  Iowa  State  Col.,  Bui.  156,  2d  part,  p.  35, 
1914. 

2  Mortensen,  M.,  Gaessler,  W.  G.,  and  Cooper,  W.  H.,  The 
Pasteurization  of  Cream  for  Buttermaking,  Agri.  Exp.  Sta. 
Iowa  State  Col.,  Bui.  1.56,  1st  part,  p.  15,  1914. 

3  Farrell,  John  J.,  Pasteurization  of  Cream  for  Buttermaking, 
Albert  Lea  State  Cry.,  Bui.  63,  pp.  6-9,  1916. 


PASTEURIZATION  105 

causes  the  cream  to  circulate  through  the  machine  in  a 
thinner  layer  than  when  the  speed  is  low.  He  says  that 
the  capacity  of  the  pasteurizer  is  increased  8  to  10  per 
cent  when  using  dry  steam  as  a  heating  medium  instead 
of  hot  water.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  when  water 
is  used  there  is  much  vibration  when  it  boils,  and  that  this 
is  rather  hard  on  the  pasteurizer.  It  is  especially  in- 
jurious to  the  soldered  joints.  The  amount  of  injury 
depends  largely  on  the  construction  of  the  machine  and  on 
the  way  in  which  it  is  operated.  Farrell  says  further  that 
the  steam  and  water  connection  to  the  ripener  and  vat 
pasteurizer  should  be  sufficiently  large  to  admit  steam 
and  water  fast  enough  for  fast  heating  and  rapid  cooling. 
He  adds  that  it  should  not  require  more  than  twenty  to 
thirty  minutes  to  heat  a  vat  of  cream  and  a  little  longer 
to  cool  it. 

Sour  cream.  —  In  large  creameries  where  a  fairly  large 
quantity  of  sour  cream  is  handled,  and  with  the  continuous 
method  of  pasteurization,  a  fore-warmer  may  be  employed 
to  good  advantage.  The  cream  should  be  heated  in  this 
fore-warmer,  which  is  a  small  vat  with  a  heating  device, 
to  100°  to  120°  F.,  where  it  should  be  held  for  a  few  minutes 
before  it  goes  to  the  pasteurizer.  This  prevents  foaming  in 
cold  weather,  increases  the  capacity  of  the  pasteurizer, 
and  the  mixing  and  heating  lessens  the  danger  of  the  cream 
curdling  in  the  pasteurizer. 

TJiin  cream..  —Thin  cream  is  often  the  source  of  diffi- 
culty in  pasteurization.  In  many  creameries  the  cream 
becomes  ''  mealy  "  after  it  is  pasteurized  if  it  is  sour  and 
low  in  fat-content.  The  "  mealy  "  condition  is  due  to 
coagulation  of  a  small  amount  of  the  serum  of  the  cream. 
When  the  cream  is  thin,  which  means  that  the  percentage 
of  serum  is  high,  even  a  low  acidity  is  likely  to  cause  some 


106  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

coagulation  of  the  curd  during  the  pasteurizing  process. 
It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  if  the  cream  con- 
tains 40  per  cent  fat  or  above,  the  *'  mealy  "  condition  will 
not  be  noticeable  even  though  the  cream  may  be  fairly  sour. 

One  of  the  sources  of  most  difficulty  in  the  operation  of 
the  "  holder  "  pasteurizer  is  the  boxings  that  hold  the  coil 
tube  and  in  which  it  rotates.  When  the  boxing  itself,  or  the 
packing  in  it,  wears  the  least  bit,  the  oil  flows  back  along 
the  tube  and  into  the  cream.  Some  machines  are  so  con- 
structed that  the  bearings  are  not  in  contact  with  the  cream. 
All  pasteurizers  should  be  safeguarded  in  this  respect. 

76.  Cost.  —  Bowen  ^  finds  that  the  flash  process 
of  pasteurization  requires  approximately  17  per  cent  more 
heat  than  the  "  holder  "  process.  In  addition  to  this  there 
is  a  correspondingly  wider  range  of  temperatures  through 
which  the  cream  must  be  cooled.  This  adds  to  the 
cost  of  pasteurization.  He  computes  the  cost  of  pasteuriz- 
ing cream  to  be  S0.0756  to  100  pounds.  This  would 
amount  to  .216  cents  a  pound  of  fat  when  calculating  35 
pounds  of  milk-fat  in  100  pounds  of  cream.  ^Nlortensen  - 
makes  the  following  summary  of  the  expenses  of  pasteuriz- 
ing a  pound  of  milk-fat : 

Table  XVIII 


Continuous 
Method 


Vat  Method 


Cost  of  steam I         .019  c 


.016  c 


Cost  of  water |         .009  c  .021  c 

Cost  of  labor  and  equipment      .  .181  c  .054  c 

Total .209  c  .091  c 

1  Bowen,  .John  T.,  The  Cost  of  Pasteurizing  Milk  and  Cream, 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bui.  85,  p.  12,  1914. 

2  Mortensen,  M.,  Cost  of  Pasteurization,  Butter,  Cheese  and 
Egg  Jour.,  Vol.  7,  No.  22,  p.  22,  1916. 


PASTEURIZATION  107 

The  labor  and  equipment  item  is  the  greatest.  The 
equipment  is  discussed  under  '' Comparison  of  Methods" 
(par.  74). 

77.  Summary.  —  There  are  two  purposes  of  pasteuriza- 
tion of  cream  for  butter-making.  The  first  is  to  kill  any 
disease  germs  that  may  be  distributed  to  man  through 
the  butter,  and  through  the  buttermilk  and  skimmed-milk 
to  man  and  beast.  The  second  is  to  improve  the  flavor  of 
the  butter.  When  this  is  accomplished  the  cream  must 
be  either  received  fresh  at  the  creamery  or,  if  sour,  the 
acidity  must  be  partially  neutralized.  In  general  the 
''holder"  process  is  more  satisfactory  than  the  continuous 
method.  From  the  viewpoint  of  maintenance  or  im- 
provement of  flavor  and  also  from  the  standpoint  of  kill- 
ing pathogenic  bacteria,  temperatures  of  143°  to  145°  F. 
for  thirty  minutes  should  be  used  in  the  vat  method  and 
180°  to  185°  F.  should  be  maintained  in  the  continuous 
process. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
CREAM  RIPENING 

Most  of  the  markets  of  the  United  States  require 
butter  that  has  been  made  from  soured  or  ripened  cream. 
This  is  fortunate,  for  in  many  communities  are  farmers 
who  wish  to  dairy  on  a  small  scale  and  who  cannot 
go  to  the  expense  of  keeping  their  cream  in  the  per- 
fectly sweet  condition.  ]Most  butter  is  made  from  cream 
that  has  soured  at  least  slightly  before  it  is  received  at 
the  creamery.  In  the  most  up-to-rlate  creameries,  the 
cream  is  pasteurized  within  a  few  hours  after  it  is  received 
and  then  a  good  starter  is  added  to  complete  the  ripening 
process,  and  thus  improve  the  flavor. 

78.  When  to  use  starter. — There  are  many  creameries 
in  this  country,  probably  over  50  per  cent,  that  do  not 
use  starter.  This  is  due  to  many  factors,  among  them 
being  indifference  of  the  butter-maker,  lack  of  knowledge 
concerning  the  propagation  of  starter,  small  amount  of 
cream,  irregular  churning,  and  difficulty  in  securing  good 
milk  for  starter  culture.  In  some  cases  perhaps  it  does 
not  pay  to  use  commercial  starter  in  a  creamery,  but, 
nevertheless,  the  butter-maker  should  know  how  to  use 
it.  On  the  farm  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  pays  to  use 
artificial  starter  except  when  the  herds  are  large,  when 
there  is  a  special  market  for  either  the  butter  or  for  the 
buttermilk  or  for  both  of  these  products,  and  when  the 
maker  understands  the  propagation  of  starter. 

108 


CREAM   RIPENING  109 

It  has  already  been  stated  in  Chapter  VI  that 
ripened-cream  butter  does  not  keep  so  well  as  butter 
made  from  sweet  cream.  There  is  a  question,  there- 
fore, whether  the  cream  should  be  ripened  at  all  when 
butter  is  made  for  certain  markets.  P^or  other  markets 
the  acidity  of  the  cream  should  be  low.  Many  of  the 
European  trades  call  for  butter  made  from  cream 
with  very  little  acid.  The  Jewish  people  are  especially 
urgent  that  their  butter  shall  be  made  from  perfectly 
sweet  cream.  On  the  other  hand,  many  consumers 
prefer  high  acid  butter.  It  is  usually  considered  that  the 
addition  of  good  starter  improves  the  flavor  of  butter 
that  is  made  for  quick  consumption. 

STARTER 

A  starter  is  a  material  containing  desirable  bacteria 
for  the  ripening  or  souring  of  dairy  products.  These 
bacteria  may  be  purchased  of  companies  whose  advertise- 
ments appear  in  the  dairy  journals.  The  growing  of  these 
bacteria  in  whole  milk  or  in  skimmed-milk  is  known  as 
starter-making. 

79.  History.  —  It  has  been  common  knowledge  among 
dairy-men  that  milk  or  cream  will  sour  quickly  if  held  at 
certain  temperatures.  It  was  also  well  known  that 
they  will  sour  still  more  quickly  if  sour  milk,  sour  cream, 
buttermilk,  or  whey  is  put  into  them.  Often  the  addition 
of  one  of  these  sour  products,  which  are  known  as  natural 
starters,  greatly  improves  the  flavor  of  the  cream  and  of 
the  subsequent  butter. 

The  studies  of  investigators  soon  showed  that  certain 
bacteria  were  responsible  for  the  souring  process  and  for 
the  desirable  flavors.  Storch,  Wiegmann,  Conn,  Eckles, 
Freudenrich,  Tiemann,  and  Russell  were  among  the  first 


110  THE  BOOK   OF  BUTTER 

investigators  to  study  cream  ripening.  In  about  1890 
these  bacteria  were  supplied  in  commercial  form  to  cream- 
ery-men. Dr.  Storch  of  Copenhagen,  Denmark,  has  the 
honor  of  doing  most  of  the  early  work  on  starter  and  of 
commercializing  it.  Several  laboratories  manufacture 
and  sell  starter  cultures. 

80.  Natural  starter.  —  A  natural  starter  is  the  result 
of  the  natural  souring  of  milk  or  some  of  its  products ; 
such  as,  buttermilk,  sour  skimmed-milk,  sour  whole  milk, 
or  sour  cream.  When  an  especially  fine  natural  starter 
is  desired,  it  may  be  obtained  in  the  following  way:  1. 
Choose  as  many  sample  bottles  as  may  be  necessary  and 
wash  them  carefully.  2.  Put  the  bottles  in  cold  or  luke- 
warm water  and  raise  the  temperature  rather  slowly  to 
at  least  180°  F.  If  the  temperature  is  raised  quickly,  the 
bottles  are  likely  to  be  broken.  3.  After  holding  them 
in  the  water  for  a  few  minutes,  draw  off  the  water  or  take 
the  bottles  out  and  place  them,  bottom  up,  in  a  suitable 
tray.  The  purpose  of  placing  them  bottom  up  is  to 
prevent  the  access  of  bacteria  to  the  cleansed  bottles. 
4.  Samples  are  to  be  taken.  If  on  a  farm,  obtain  a  sam- 
ple from  each  of  a  few  or  all  of  the  cows.  If  in  a  creamery, 
the  sample  should  be  taken  from  each  of  several,  if  not  all, 
the  patrons.  5.  Ripen  at  60°  to  75°  F.  6.  Examine  the 
curd  for  condition  of  body  and  flavor.  It  should  be 
smooth  and  free  from  gas  pockets,  thus  showing  whether 
little  or  any  filth  is  present.  The  flavor  should  be  clean 
and  pleasant  with  a  distinct  acid  taste.  After  a  good 
natural  starter  has  been  selected,  it  should  be  propagated 
in  the  same  way  as  artificial  starter.  At  present  it  is 
a  question  whether  it  pays  to  use  natural  starter  in  this 
manner,  for  the  artificial  starter,  which  is  much  better, 
can  be  purchased  readily  and  without  much  expense. 


CREAM    RIPENING  111 

Each  package  costs  about  75  ets.  So  long  as  the  average 
person  on  the  farm  is  not  trained  in  starter  propagation, 
the  best  starter  to  use  in  making  dairy  butter  is  one  of 
the  natural  sorts.  Usually  buttermilk  is  the  most  con- 
venient. Natural  starter  is  not  good  enough  to  employ 
regularly  in  a  creamery. 

81.  Artificial  starter.  —  Artificial  starter  is  practically 
a  pure  culture  of  desirable  bacteria.  These  micro-or- 
ganisms are  isolated  from  milk  and  are  cultivated  on  a 
medium  that  can  readily  be  put  in  good  form  for  trans- 
portation. There  are  two  general  forms  of  media  in  which 
artificial  starter  is  shipped,  the  powdered  and  liquid. 
The  powdered  condition,  in  which  there  is  very  little 
moisture,  holds  the  bacteria  in  the  active  stage  longer 
than  the  liquid  medium.  The  powder  forms  may  be  held 
at  room  temperature,  while  the  liquid  cultures  must  be 
put  in  the  refrigerator.  The  liquid  culture,  which  con- 
tains bacteria  not  quite  so  dormant  as  those  in  the 
powder  culture,  must  be  used  before  the  expiration  of 
the  time  that  is  stamped  on  each  bottle. 

Usually  it  is  necessary  to  set  a  new  starter  every  three 
or  four  weeks.  This  depends  largely  on  the  carefulness 
of  the  operator.  Often  a  very  careful  butter-maker  will 
carry  a  starter  over  a  year  without  renewal.  In  case  a 
liquid  starter  is  employed,  the  company  supplying  the 
cultures  has  a  standing  order  to  send  a  bottle  of  starter 
at  regular  intervals.  When  the  powder  form  is  used, 
several  samples  are  purchased  at  one  time. 

82.  Apparatus.  —  In  the  cultivation  of  starter,  the 
usual  practice  is  to  carry  the  starter  from  day  to  day  in  a 
small  quantity,  which  is  more  carefully  handled.  This 
small  amount  is  termed  "  mother  starter."  The  choice 
of  containers  for  mother  starter  depends  largely  on  condi- 


112  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

tions  and  on  the  preference  of  the  operator.  Glass  is 
somewhat  preferable,  as  dirt  is  easily  detected  and  the 
condition  of  the  curd  is  readily  noted.  Two  or  three 
bottles  should  be  used,  for  they  may  break  in  pasteur- 
izing. Metal  holders,  as  copper  properly  tinned,  or 
heavy  tin,  may  be  used.  It  is  always  well  to  employ  a 
sufficient  number  of  containers  so  that  careful  selection 
is  possible. 

For  creamery  work,  large  apparatus  is  necessary  in 
addition  to  the  mother-starter  utensils.  Several  types 
of  starter  cans  are  on  the  market,  varying  in  capac- 
ity from  30  to  100  gallons.  These  cans  have  a  jacket 
about  them  into  which  steam  or  cold  water  is  passed  to 
raise  or  lower  the  temperature  during  pasteurization  and 
in  which  water  of  a  definite  temperature  remains  during 
the  ripening  process.  There  is  a  stirring  device  to  agitate 
the  milk  and  to  break  the  curd. 

The  Haugdahl  can  was  the  first  one  made.  It  was 
invented  by  Haugdahl  in  1895.  The  Victor  can  was 
placed  on  the  market  in  1898.  The  Triumph  came  into 
use  in  1902.  The  Victor  Trunnion  came  out  in  1906. 
The  Blue  Line  was  put  on  the  market  in  1907,  and  the 
Minnetonna  was  first  sold  in  1917.  There  are  other 
machines  that  are  not  so  well  known  which  are  used  in 
some  creameries. 

83.   Steps  in  propagation  of  mother  starter.  — 

1.  Employ  three  one-quart  bottles  or  fruit  jars.  Larger 
receptacles  may  be  used  if  desired. 

2.  Use  fresh,  clean  milk,  which  must  have  a  good 
flavor.     It  may  be  either  whole  milk  or  skimmed-milk. 

3.  Fill  the  containers  one-half  to  two-thirds  full  of 
milk.  If  they  are  filled  full,  it  is  difficult  to  prevent 
contamination  from  the  covers,   which  are  difficult  to 


CREAM  RIPENING  113 

sterilize   when   the   pasteurization   is   performed   in  hot 
water. 

4.  Protect  the  containers  with  regular  covers  (caps  or 
tops). 

5.  Pasteurize  by  heating  to  a  temperature  of  180°  to 
200°  F.  for  thirty  minutes  or  longer,  and  then  cool  to 
ripening  temperature  of  60°  to  75°  F.  Lower  tempera- 
tures may  do  if  efficiently  maintained.  Pasteurization  may 
be  accomplished  by  t3ang  a  string  about  the  necks  of  the 
bottles  and  suspending  them  in  a  pail  or  vat  heated  by 
steam,  or  in  a  kettle  or  dish  heated  on  a  stove.  If  pas- 
teurization is  over  a  fire,  the  bottles  should  not  rest  on 
the  bottom  of  the  receptacle.  Other  supports  may  be 
used  to  keep  the  containers  from  tipping  over.  If  glass 
containers  are  used,  the  temperature  should  be  raised 
and  reduced  slowly  in  order  to  prevent  breaking. 

6.  After  pasteurization,  the  milk  is  ready  for  inoculation. 
Inoculate  in  a  quiet  place  where  the  wind  cannot  blow 
dirt  and  bacteria  into  this  clean  seed-bed.  With  dry 
fingers  remove  the  cover  and  place  it  in  a  clean  spot. 
Pour  in  all  of  the  commercial  culture,  or  1  to  10  per  cent 
from  the  previous  day's  culture.  Then  shake  or  stir 
carefully  in  order  to  distribute  the  bacteria  throughout 
the  inoculated  material.  The  amount  of  ripened  starter 
for  inoculation  can  be  measured  accurately  in  a  vessel, 
such  as  a  sterilized  cup  or  spoon,  or  it  can  be  determined 
rather  closely  by  the  eye. 

7.  Ripen  at  about  60°  to  75°  F.  depending  largely  on 
the  routine  of  the  creamery  operation.  The  best  single 
degree  is  72°  F.  The  smaller  inoculations  require  higher 
temperatures.  By  experience  an  operator  can  soon  learn 
the  inoculation  and  temperature  required  to  ripen  his 
starter  in  a  given  time.    Usually  a  1  to  8  per  cent  inocu- 

I 


114  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

lation  will  ripen  a  starter  in  twelve  hours  at  about  65°  F. 
The  temperature  must  be  fairly  constant. 

8.  The  starter  is  ripe  when  a  curd  forms.  This  curd 
should  be  soft  and  custard-like  in  appearance ;  it  should 
not  be  hard  and  firm.  In  the  soft  custard-like  condition 
the  acidity  is  approximately  .7  per  cent  lactic  acid. 
When  firm  and  hard  the  acidity  may  be  as  high  as  .95 
per  cent  lactic  acid.  Usually  it  does  not  exceed  .9  per 
cent  acidity.  When  the  acidity  is  high,  the  lactic  acid 
bacteria  themselves  die  and  other  micro-organisms  grow 
which  produce  various  flavors,  especially  the  disagree- 
able putrefactive  flavor.  This  is  the  worst  stage  of  over- 
ripening,  and  it  should  be  avoided. 

9.  When  the  starter  is  ripe,  it  should  be  used  at  once. 
If  this  is  impossible,  cool  to  50°  F.  or  lower.  If  the  con- 
tainer is  small,  do  not  shake  the  starter  before  putting  it 
in  storage.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  cool  a  large  batch 
of  starter  fairly  quickly  so  that  it  will  not  over-ripen. 
In  such  case,  it  may  be  agitated  if  it  is  immediately  cooled 
to  50°  F.  or  below. 

10.  On  examination,  the  curd  should  be  smooth,  com- 
pact, and  without  gas  pockets.  Gas  shows  the  presence 
of  undesirable  bacteria.  A  hard  and  lumpy  curd,  whey, 
and  high  acid  show  over-ripeness.  These  are  very  undesir- 
able. After  the  state  of  the  curd  is  noted,  shake  well  to 
break  it  into  a  smooth  lumpless  condition.  Shake  with 
a  rotary  motion,  being  careful  not  to  permit  the  milk  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  cap  for  fear  of  contamination. 
Now  smell  and  taste  it,  but  never  from  the  starter  con- 
tainer. Always  pour  some  of  the  curd  into  a  spoon  or 
cup  and  then  replace  the  cover  immediately.  After  smell- 
ing, it  is  best  to  put  at  least  a  teaspoonful  into  the  mouth. 
When  starter  is  lumpy  it  does  not  taste  the  same  as  when 


CREAM    RIPENING  115 

the  curd  is  broken  in  fine  particles.  Therefore  it  should 
be  agitated  to  about  the  same  consistency  day  after  day. 
The  amounts  of  starter  to  taste  should  be  about  uniform. 
A  small  quantity  in  the  mouth  will  not  taste  quite  the 
same  as  a  larger  portion.  Also  the  temperature  from 
sample  to  sample  should  be  approximately  the  same. 
A  culture  that  is  about  50°  F.  tastes  difi'erently  from  one 
with  a  temperature  of  about  70°  F.  Experienced  opera- 
tors unconsciously  make  allowances  for  these  factors. 
The  flavor  should  be  clean,  with  a  mild  acid  taste.  The 
first  propagation  is  likely  to  be  somewhat  disagreeable 
because  of  the  presence  of  some  of  the  original  medium 
in  the  commercial  culture. 

84.  How  often  to  propagate.  —  The  lactic  acid  bacteria 
are  most  vigorous  when  only  a  small  amount  of  acid  is 
present.  Rahn  ^  states,  ''  As  soorx  as  a  determination  of 
fermentation  products  is  possible  it  shows  the  fermenta- 
tion per  cell  to  be  faster  the  younger  the  culture."  Again, 
he  concludes/  ''  Old  cultures  acidify  slowly  even  if  trans- 
ferred into  fresh  milk ;  the  rate  of  multiplication  is  also 
influenced  by  long  sojourn  in  the  same  culture."  On 
account  of  the  starter  being  much  easier  to  examine  when 
a  curd  is  formed,  it  is  the  custom  to  consider  that  starter 
is  ''  ripe  "  when  coagulation  has  taken  place  and  not  when 
the  bacteria  are  most  active,  which  is  before  the  curd  has 
developed.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  micro- 
organisms are  more  active  when  the  curd  first  forms 
than  when  more  acid  and  other  products  of  fermentation 
have  been  produced.  It  is  apparent  then,  from  the  view- 
point of  the  activity  of  the  organisms,  that  the  ideal  time 

1  Rahn,  Otto,  The  Fermenting  Capacity  of  the  Average 
Single  Cell  of  Bacterium  Lactis  Acidi.  Mich.  Board  of  Agri., 
p.  480,  1911. 


116  THE  BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

at  which  to  inoculate  cream,  or  transfer  portions  of  starter 
from  one  culture  to  another,  is  when  the  curd  is  soft. 
It  is  usually  impossible  to  make  inoculations  at  this  time. 
Therefore,  the  custom  has  arisen  to  place  small  cultures 
in  the  refrigerator  when  they  are  ripe  and  to  cool  the  larger 
ones  by  running  water  about  them.  Sometimes  when 
low  ripening  temperatures  are  employed,  the  danger  of 
permitting  the  cultures  to  over-ripen  is  not  great. 

The  ideal  method  to  follow,  so  far  as  the  actual  prac- 
tice in  the  dairy  and  creamery  is  concerned,  is  to  transfer 
the  starter  cultures  each  day.  By  careful  handling,  the 
mother  cultures  may  be  carried  successfully  by  only  two 
or  three  transfers  a  week. 

RIPENING    CREAM   IN   A    CREAMERY 

85.  Method.  —  In  a  creamery  or  a  large  dairy,  it  is 
necessary  to  carry  more  than  a  pint  or  a  quart  of  starter. 
Along  with  the  mother  starter,  a  second  starter  of  ten 
to  fifty  pounds  may  be  carried.  After  the  mother  starter 
in  the  glass  container  is  inoculated,  the  remainder  of  the 
previous  day's  mother  starter  is  poured  into  the  second 
starter,  and  the  cream  is  inoculated  from  this  second 
starter.  In  many  large  creameries,  third  and  fourth 
starters  are  carried. 

The  improved  starter-can  is  a  labor-saver,  but  not 
an  absolute  necessity.  It  may  be  used  to  advantage 
when  circumstances  warrant  it.  Some  starter-makers 
prefer  to  use  shot-gun  cans;  others  like  the  regular  ten- 
gallon  milk  cans.  In  either  of  the  two  last-named  cases, 
the  temperatures  can  be  easily  controlled  for  pasteuriza- 
tion and  ripening  by  placing  the  cans  in  a  barrel  or  in  a 
plank  box.  During  pasteurization  it  is  necessary  to  agitate 
the  milk.     In  this  larger  quantity  the  pasteurization  tern- 


CREAM    RIPENING  117 

perature  need  not  be  above  180°  F.  for  twenty  or  thirty 
minutes.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  give  the  milk 
a  pronounced  cooked  flavor ;  otherwise  this  larger  quan- 
tity of  starter  should  be  handled  in  the  same  way  as  is 
the  mother  starter. 

86.  Inoculation  of  the  cream.  —  It  is  necessary  to  use 
a  larger  inoculation  from  starter  to  cream  than  from  starter 
to  starter,  because  the  seed-bed  is  not  so  well  prepared. 
The  inoculation  of  the  cream  may  vary  from  8  to  50  per 
cent.  This  will  depend  on  the  following  factors :  the 
percentage  of  fat  in  the  cream,  the  capacities  of  the  cream - 
vat  and  the  churn,  the  capacity  of  the  starter  utensils, 
and  the  available  milk  for  starter  propagation. 

Percentage  of  fat  in  creavi. —  The  cream  should  be 
sufficiently  rich  in  milk-fat  to  permit  at  least  a  15  to  20 
per  cent  inoculation  of  starter.  Many  times  it  is  advis- 
able to  use  a  heavier  inoculation ;  however,  this  may  not 
always  be  possible.  Ordinarily  the  cream  should  test 
at  least  30  per  cent  milk-fat  to  churn  properly.  Most 
butter-makers  like  to  have  the  cream  test  approximately 
40  per  cent  milk-fat  when  it  is  placed  in  the  ripener. 
Such  cream  would  be  reduced  to  a  test  of  33  J  per  cent 
milk-fat  when  a  20  per  cent  inoculation  of  skimmed-milk 
starter  is  put  into  it.  If  whole-milk  starter  were  used, 
the  reduction  would  not  be  so  great. 

Size  of  utensils.  —  The  capacities  of  the  cream-vat  and 
of  the  churn  xery  often  determine  whether  or  not  a  large 
or  a  small  amount  of  starter  should  be  used.  If  the  vat 
is  completely  filled,  when  only  a  small  amount  of  starter 
is  added,  and  if  there  is  no  other  container  for  the  cream, 
it  is  evident  that  a  large  quantity  of  starter  should  not 
be  put  into  the  cream  even  though  the  flavor  would  be 
improved.     In  most  creameries  this  condition  is  likely 


118  THE  BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

to  exist  only  a  few  weeks  in  the  flush  of  the  season ;  so 
that  it  actually  would  not  pay  to  buy  the  extra  machinery 
in  order  to  give  the  cream  the  ideal  inoculations  of  starter. 

What  has  been  said  concerning  the  capacity  of  cream- 
vats  is  also  true  of  the  churns  and  of  the  starter-cans. 

Kind  of  milk  for  starter.  —  Obtaining  suitable  milk 
for  starter  proj)agation  is  often  very  difficult.  Either 
whole  milk  or  skimmed-milk  may  be  used.  Many  butter- 
makers  say  that  whole  milk  is  the  better  and  others  assert 
that  skimmed-milk  is  more  desirable.  What  is  really 
important  is  a  milk-serum  with  a  clean  flavor.  The 
presence  or  absence  of  a  little  fat,  such  as  might  be  in 
either  skimmed-milk  or  whole  milk,  is  not  important.  It 
is  usually  considered  that  whole  milk  is  more  easily  se- 
lected, for  the  man  in  the  receiving  room  can  quickly 
pick  out  the  best  milk  when  it  is  delivered  at  the  creamery. 
If  it  were  separated,  special  care  would  have  to  be  observed 
m  the  separation  process  to  prevent  contamination  with 
poor  milk.  The  most  serious  trouble  exists  in  gathered- 
cream  creameries.  Usually  in  such  cases,  skimmed-milk 
is  obtained  directly  from  a  few  farms  at  a  special  price. 
When  the  creamery  is  in  a  large  city,  it  is  often  impossible 
to  secure  good  starter  milk  in  the  liquid  condition.  In 
the  past  few  years,  several  firms  that  powder  milk  have 
placed  on  the  market  a  dried  skimmed-milk  product 
which  is  very  satisfactory  for  the  starter  culture.  It 
is  useless  to  ripen  cream  with  an  artificial  starter  if  a  good 
milk  cannot  be  obtained  for  its  propagation. 

Making  the  transfer.  —  If  it  is  not  the  custom  of  a  cream- 
ery to  pasteurize  the  cream,  the  starter  may  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  cream-vat  before  the  cream  is  put  into  it  or 
when  a  part  or  all  of  the  cream  is  in  the  vat.  In  such  case, 
the  time  of  this  transfer  should  depend  on  when  it  is  most 


CREAM  RIPENING  119 

convenient  to  wash  the  starter-cans,  when  the  starter  milk 
is  received,  and  when  it  is  most  convenient  to  pasteurize 
the  starter  milk.  If  the  cream  is  pasteurized,  the  starter 
should  not  be  put  into  it  until  the  temperature  has  been 
reduced  to  below  100°  F. 

Before  making  the  transfer  to  the  cream,  the  starter 
should  be  thoroughly  agitated  to  break  the  curd  into  very 
small  particles.  It  is  possible  to  distribute  the  bacteria 
in  the  cream  better  when  the  curd  is  in  this  condition  than 
when  it  is  lumpy.  If  the  curd  is  soft  and  custard-like, 
it  breaks  up  more  easily  than  when  it  is  somewhat  over- 
ripe and  consequently  is  hard.  If  the  curd  is  very  firm, 
a  wise  plan  is  to  pass  it  through  a  cream  strainer  when 
it  is  poured  into  the  cream.  This  will  help  to  put  it  into 
a  more  finely  divided  condition.  It  is  essential  that  the 
cream  be  thoroughly  agitated  after  the  inoculation  with 
the  starter  to  distribute  the  bacteria  properly. 

RIPENING   CREAM   ON   A    FARM 

87.  Method.  —  On  a  farm  the  cream  might  be  handled 
in  the  following  manner  :  Suppose  the  dairy-man  separates, 
each  half  day,  ten  pounds  of  cream  testing  about  35  per 
cent  milk-fat.  On  Monday  a  new^  starter  of  about  two- 
thirds  of  a  quart  is  inoculated  from  a  starter  that  has 
been  held  from  Friday  or  Saturday.  The  remainder  of 
the  held-over  starter  is  put  in  the  ten  pounds  of  cream. 
The  cream  is  then  set  at  about  05°  F.  It  may  have  to 
be  set  in  a  cooler  place  before  evening.  In  the  evening 
ten  pounds  more  cream  are  added,  and  all  the  cream,  which 
is  now  in  one  vessel,  is  set  at  about  00°  F.  On  Tuesday 
morning  add  the  morning's  cream  and  set  at  00°  to  05°  F. ,  as 
during  the  day  it  is  more  convenient  to  watch  the  ripening 
process  than  at  night.     In  the  evening  add  the  evening's 


120  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

cream  and  set  at  58°  to  60°  F.,  for  by  this  time  there  is 
a  very  large  army  of  bacteria  at  work.  On  Wednes- 
day morning  churn  the  forty  pounds  of  cream  and  start 
the  ripening  process  anew  with  Wednesday's  cream.  It 
is  important  to  watch  carefully  and  maintain  the  desired 
temperatures,  to  stir  the  cream  thoroughly  after  each 
addition  of  fresh  cream,  and  not  to  over-ripen  it. 

RIPENING  TEMPERATURES 

88.  Proper  temperattire.  —  Ripening  temperatures  for 
cream  are  usually  between  60°  and  75°  F.  The  degree 
of  temperature  that  should  be  used  depends  on  the  time 
that  can  be  allowed  for  the  ripening  process,  on  the  quan- 
tity of  the  starter  that  has  been  added,  and  on  the  amount 
of  lactic  acid  that  must  be  developed.  When  these  fac- 
tors are  named,  it  is  understood  that  the  temperatures 
given  are  actually  maintained.  Often  it  is  difficult  to 
hold  a  certain  degree  of  temperature  because  of  varying 
conditions  in  the  creameries ;  such  as,  the  nature  of  the 
apparatus  and  the  quantity  of  cream  that  is  handled, 
and  the  method  of  heating  the  building.  If  the  quan- 
tity of  cream  is  large,  if  the  cream-vat  is  well  insulated, 
and  if  it  is  provided  with  a  tight-fitting  top,  very  little 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  holding  a  fairly  uniform 
temperature.  On  the  other  hand,  if  an  open  vat  with 
poor  insulation  is  used,  there  can  be  practically  no  control 
of  temperatures. 

89.  Temperature  and  inoculation.  —  When  the  inocula- 
tion of  the  cream  has  been  large,  a  fairly  low  temperature 
may  be  employed,  and,  vice  versa,  when  the  transfer  has 
been  small  a  higher  temperature  should  be  used.  If 
extremely  quick  ripening  is  desired,  it  may  be  accomplished 
by  a  large  inoculation  of  starter  and  a  high  ripening  tem- 


CREAM   RIPENING  121 

peratiire.     Ordinarily  it  is  safer  to  ripen  cream  at  60°- 
65°  F.  than  at  the  higher  temperatures. 

WHEN   CREAM   IS   RIPE 

Cream  is  ripe  when  the  desirable  amount  of  acid  has 
been  developed.  This  will  depend  on  the  requirement 
of  the  market. 

90.  Uniform  ripening.  —  To  obtain  uniform  ripening 
and  really  to  determine  when  cream  is  ripe,  it  is  necessary 
to  allow  the  production  of  a  certain  acidity  in  the  serum 
of  the  cream.  For  example,  .4  per  cent  acidity  in  cream 
testing  30  per  cent  milk-fat  is  not  the  same  as  .4  per  cent 
acidity  in  cream  with  a  fat-content  of  40  per  cent,  for  the 
serum  which  contains  the  acid  is  not  present  in  the  same 
proportion  in  both  creams. 

The  following  method  may  be  used  to  determine  the 
desired  acidity  :  (100  per  cent  —  per  cent  fat)  X  arbitrary 
factor  =  desired  acidity.  This  problem  should  be  worked 
as  follows :  100  per  cent  —  30  per  cent  milk-fat  =  70 
per  cent  serum.  70  per  cent  X  .006  (arbitrary  factor)  = 
.42  per  cent  acidity  that  is  desired ;  100  per  cent  —  40 
per  cent  milk-fat  =  60  per  cent  serum ;  60  per  cent  X 
.006  (arbitrary  factor)  =  .36  per  cent  acidity  that  is 
desired.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  .42  per  cent  acidity  in  cream 
testing  30  per  cent  milk-fat  is  the  same  degree  of  ripeness 
as  .36  per  cent  acidity  in  cream  testing  40  per  cent  milk- 
fat.  The  cream  should  be  ripened  until  it  contains  very 
nearly  the  proper  amount  of  acid.  In  case  a  high  acidity 
is  required,  such  as  .6  or  .65  per  cent,  great  care  should 
be  observed,  for  over-ripening  is  likely  to  take  place. 

91.  How  to  ascertain  and  satisfy  the  demand  of  the 
trade.  —  It  should  be  understood  that  the  arbitrary  fac- 
tor is  determined  by  learning  the  demand  of   the   trade. 


122  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

The  butter-maker  should  ascertain  from  the  butter- 
dealer  whether  the  call  of  the  trade  is  for  a  low  or  a 
high  acidity,  and  then  he  should  try  the  employment  of 
a  certain  arbitrary  factor  such  as  .006,  .007,  or  .008. 
After  determining  which  one  shows  the  desired  acidity, 
he  should  use  it  consistently  day  after  day.  If  a  high 
acidity  is  called  for,  a  chemical  determination  of  the 
acid  in  each  vatful  of  cream  should  be  made.  If  a  low 
acidity  is  required,  there  is  not  much  danger  of  over- 
ripening.  In  this  case  the  sense  of  taste  together  with  an 
occasional  chemical  test  is  sufficient  to  give  good  results. 
92.  Cooling  immediately  after  inoculation.  —  It  is 
the  custom  in  many  creameries  to  cool  the  cream  for  hold- 
ing overnight  to  a  degree  below  the  churning  tempera- 
ture, immediately  after  the  addition  of  the  starter. 
When  this  is  practiced,  very  little  ripening  takes  place. 
The  probable  benefit  of  the  starter  in  this  case  is  derived 
through  the  absorption  of  its  flavor  by  milk-fat. 


CHAPTER  IX 

FROM  CHURN    TO   PACKAGE 

The  processes  from  churn  to  package  include  churning, 
washing,  salting,  working,  and  packing.  These  procedures 
are  the  part  over  which  the  butter-maker  has  direct  con- 
trol. If  the  milk  is  separated  on  the  farms,  the  creamery 
operator  has  no  power  to  superintend  the  process.  All 
that  he  can  do  is  to  exert  his  influence  for  more  carefulness 
in  the  supervision  of  the  care  of  the  milk  and  cream  before 
it  reaches  the  creamery.  The  proper  care  of  the  raw 
material  on  the  farm  is  far  more  important  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  desirable  flavor  in  butter  than  pasteuriza- 
tion and  cream  ripening,  which  are  conducted  in  the 
creamery.  It  is  apparent,  then,  that  the  butter-maker 
is  more  directly  responsible  for  that  part  of  the  manu- 
facture of  butter  that  takes  place  from  the  time  the 
cream  runs  into  the  churn  until  it  is  in  the  packages  than 
for  the  flavor  of  the  product. 

HISTORY   OF  CHURNING 

Churning  is  the  process  of  collecting  the  fat  in  milk 
or  cream  by  agitation,  to  such  an  extent  that  the  serum 
may  readily  be  drawn  from  it. 

93.  Simple  churns.  —  The  first  churns  consisted  of 
animal  skins.  They  were  suspended  from  a  tree  or  build- 
ing and  swung  against  these  objects  to  cause  agitation.  It 
is  said  that  the  Arabs  were  the  first  people  to  apply  other 

123 


124 


THE  BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


than  human  power.  They  tied  the  skin  to  a  horse's  tail 
and  then  it  was  dragged  over  rough  ground  with  sufficient 
speed  to  churn  the  milk.  This  form  of  churn  is  still 
found  in  many  oriental  countries.  Following  the  skin 
churn  came  the  many  types  of  small  wooden  churns. 
Some  of  these  hand  machines  were  in  the  shape  of  a 
barrel,  which  was  revolved  to  produce  agitation.     Others 


Fig.  43.  —  A  few  of  the  many  types  of  hand  churns. 

were  made  with  paddles  or  dashers.  There  are  many 
small  egg-beater  and  cream-whipping  types  of  churns 
which  collect  the  fat  in  a  few  minutes.  These  churns  are 
fairly  satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of  efficiency  of 
churning  and  of  producing  good  butter.  A  few  of  the  types 
of  churns  employed  on  the  farms  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  43. 
94.  Large  chums.  —  The  first  large  churn  was  the  box 
type.  When  this  came  into  use,  the  mechanical  worker 
became  necessary,  for  there  was  too  much  butter  to  work 
by  hand.  The  need  for  a  more  convenient,  sanitary,  and 
faster  method  of  churning  and  working  butter  was  felt 
as    the    industry    developed.     In    approximately    1850, 


FROM   CHURN    TO   PACKAGE 


125 


which  was  a  few  years  before  the  first  creamery  was 
organized  in  the  United  States,  the  idea  of  a  combined 
churn  and  worker  came  into  existence.  It  is  said  that 
Macnish  ^  was  one  of  the  first  in  this  country  to  study  and 
patent  butter-workers  within  churns.  The  large  combined 
machines,  as  now  known,  came  on  the  market  about  1893. 
Cornish,  Curtis,  and  Green  built  the  first  combined 
machine,  which  was  known  as  the  National  Combined 


"3 

h-ms»-  ^  mm 

'^^^:m^zr"im  1 

IIHBii^ilFF^y^BHir"^  '^M 

Fig.  44.  —  Power  churns.  From  left  to  right  the  small  churns  are: 
Perfoftion  Jr.,  Minnetonna,  Home  Creamery,  The  large  chm-ns: 
Perfection,  left,  and  Simplex,  right. 


Churn  and  Butter  Worker.  The  Victor  churn  was 
placed  on  the  market  about  1896.  The  Simplex  Combined 
Churn  and  Butter  Worker  was  designed  by  the  D.  H. 
Burrell  &  Co.^  in  1898.  The  Disbrow  was  first  used  about 
the  year  1903.  The  Perfection  churn  was  invented  about 
1908.     Fig.  44  shows  a  few  of  the  power  churns.     The 

1  Macnish,    James,    Letter    to    author    by    R.    F.    Macnish, 
who  is  a  grandson  of  James  Macnish,  1917. 

2  Burrell,  D.  H.,  Letter  to  author,  1917. 


126  THE   BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

Wizard,  which  was  invented  by  Valerius/  was  placed  on 
the  market  in  1917.  Fig.  45  shows  the  Wizard  churn. 
A  few  other  combined  churn  and  worker  machines,  such 
as  The  Dairy  Queen  and  the  Squeezer,  have  been  on  the 
market.  According  to  Alvord,-  patents  have  been  issued 
for  new  churns  by  the  United  States  Patent  Office  at  the 
rate  of  one  every  ten  or  twelve  days  for  the  last  seventy 
years.  This  includes  all  sizes  of  churns.  Such  has  been 
the  interest  in  improving  the  churning  process. 

FACTORS    IX   THE    CHURXIXG    QUALITY   OF   CREAM 

These  factors  are  usually  more  easily  controlled  in  the 
creamery  than  in  the  dairy,  which  accounts  for  less  diffi- 
culty being  experienced  in  creamery  practice. 

95.  Temperature  is  the  most  important  factor  in- 
fluencing the  churning  process.  The  milk-fat  globules 
should  be  sufficiently  warm  to  cohere,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  temperature  should  not  be  so  high  as  to  cause 
greasy  butter,  increased  loss  of  milk-fat  in  the  buttermilk, 
or  the  incorporation  of  too  much  buttermilk. 

If  the  temperature  is  too  low,  the  cream  will  whip  instead 
of  churn.  In  such  case,  a  part  of  the  cream  should  be 
removed  from  the  churn  and  warmed  sufficiently  to  raise 
the  entire  churning  to  the  proper  temperature.  Occa- 
sionally warm  water  may  be  added  ;  however,  it  is  likely 
to  melt  some  of  the  fat  and  it  dilutes  the  buttermilk. 
In  the  hand  churn,  with  well-ripened  cream  testing  30  to 
40  per  cent  milk-fat,  the  temperature  should  be  56°  to 
62°  F.     In  the  creamery  churn,  the  temperature  should 

1  Valerius,  T.  L,,  Letter  to  author  bv  the  Creamery  Package 
Mfg.  Co.,  1917. 

2  Alvord,  Henry  E.,  The  Butter  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Year  Book,  p.  13,  1889. 


FROM  CHURN  TO  PACKAGE 


127 


128  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

be  48°  to  54°  F.  After  the  ripening  process  and  several 
hours  before  the  cream  is  placed  in  the  churn,  the  tem- 
perature should  be  lowered  to  the  proper  degree  for 
churning.  The  reason  for  this  care  in  cooHng  the 
cream  is  that  it  requires  a  few  hours  for  the  fat  to 
recrystallize  or  harden.  In  cooling,  natural  ice  should 
not  be  put  in  the  cream,  for  much  of  it  contains  harm- 
ful bacteria. 

The  butter-maker  should  regulate  the  temperature,  the 
richness  of  the  cream,  and  all  other  factors,  in  order 
that  the  butter  will  not  have  a  broken  grain  and  be 
greasy,  but  will  be  firm  and  waxy.  He  must  remember 
that  the  proper  churning  temperature  is  that  at  which 
the  churning  process  will  require  thirty  to  forty-five 
minutes  when  all  other  factors  are  normal. 

96.  Richness  of  cream.  —  It  is  easy  to  understand  that 
rich  cream,  in  which  there  is  a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  serum,  will  churn  more  readily  than  cream 
containing  a  greater  amount  which  interferes  with  the 
concussion  of  the  fat  globules.  For  easy  churning,  the 
cream  should  contain  30  to  40  per  cent  of  milk-fat.  Thin 
cream  is  often  the  cause  of  difficult  churning.  Sometimes 
it  is  necessary  to  churn  cream  with  a  low  percentage  of 
milk-fat,  but  this  is  at  the  expense  of  time  or  the  quality 
of  the  butter,  and  often  of  both.  If  the  cream  is  too  rich 
in  milk-fat,  it  will  adhere  to  the  sides  of  the  churn.  This 
may  cause  difficult  churning. 

97.  Ripeness  of  cream.  —  Ripe  or  sour  cream  is  less 
viscous  than  sweet  cream.  This  viscosity  may  consist 
in  part  of  albumin,  some  of  which  may  be  seen  in  the 
slime  around  the  separator  bowl  after  separation,  and 
part  of  the  membrane  about  each  fat  globule,  if  such  a 
membrane  is  present.      Regarding  the   inclosure  of  the 


FROM    CHURN    TO    PACKAGE  129 

fat  globules,  Cooper,  Nuttall,  and  Freak  ^  write:  ''The 
much  debated  question  as  to  the  presence  of  a  mucous 
envelope  around  the  globules  is  one  of  considerable  im- 
portance in  the  problem  of  churnability.  This  envelope, 
the  membrane  of  Acherson,  was  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  protoplasm  of  the  cell.  It  is  most  generally 
accepted  that  no  such  membrane  exists;  yet  Storch 
(1897)  conducted  a  series  of  experiments  which  tend  to 
show  that  there  is  such  a  mucous  envelope ;  also  Sturte- 
vant,  Aberhalden  and  Voltz,  and  others  assert  that  there 
is  a  membrane."  If  the  viscosity  is  broken  by  ripening 
or  by  pasteurization,  the  cream  will  churn  more  easily 
than  when  it  is  sweet  or  unpasteurized. 

98.  Condition  of  milk-fat. — It  is  generally  considered 
that  the  milk-fat  comparatively  low  in  volatile  acids  and 
high  in  olein  will  churn  more  easily  than  the  fat  that  is 
rather  high  in  these  acids  and  low  in  olein,  for  it  is  softer. 
The  globules  of  the  soft  fat  cohere  more  readily  in  churn- 
ing than  those  of  the  hard  fat.  Therefore,  it  is  necessary 
to  raise  the  churning  temperature  when  the  fat  is  too  hard 
to  collect  properly.  The  condition  of  milk-fat  is  affected 
by  feed,  breed  of  the  cow,  her  individuality,  the  stage  of 
her  lactation  period,  and  perhaps  a  few  other  factors. 

Influence  of  feed.  —  The  kind  of  feed  that  the  cows 
eat  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  condition  of  the  milk-fat. 
Cottonseed  products  are  among  the  feeds  that  most  affect 
the  fat,  especially  in  relation  to  churning.  Smith,  Wells, 
and  Ewing  ^  write :    '*  AVhen  cows  were  fed  cottonseed 

1  Cooper,  W.  F.,  Nuttall,  W.  H.,  and  Freak,  G.  A.,  The  Fat 
Globules  of  Milk  in  Relation  to  Churning,  Jour.  Agr.  Sci.,  Vol.  4, 
p.  154,  1911. 

2  Smith,  F.  H.,  Wells,  C.  A.,  and  Ewing,  P.  V.,  The  Changes  in 
Composition  of  Butter  Fat  Produced  by  Feeding  Cottonseed 
Oil,  Ga.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  122,  p.  110,  191G. 


130  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

oil  the  properties  of  the  butter-fat  differed  from  those  of  a 
butter-fat  when  the  cows  were  not  receiving  the  cotton- 
seed oil.  The  change  in  properties  was  greater  with  the 
feeding  of  a  larger  amount  of  oil."  Eckles  and  Palmer  ^ 
summarize  their  report  as  follows  :  "  The  feeding  of  cotton- 
seed products  exerts  characteristic  effects  upon  the 
physical  and  chemical  constants  of  butter-fat  and  upon 
the  properties  of  butter.  These  are  manifested,  in  general, 
by  a  decrease  in  saponification  value  and  Reichert-Meissl 
number,  and  an  increase  in  the  iodin-absorption  value 
and  melting  point  of  the  butter-fat.  The  effects  on  the 
butter  are  to  cause  a  firmer  body,  frequently  a  gummy 
consistency,  a  higher  standing  up  quality  or  ability  to 
withstand  a  higher  temperature  without  losing  its  body,  a 
flat,  oily  taste,  and  a  better  keeping  quality." 

The  author  has  examined  many  samples  of  butter  from 
the  South  and  almost  invariably  the  firm  gummy  body 
is  very  apparent.  In  some  cases  the  butter  was  too  hard  to 
spread  nicely  on  bread  even  after  being  held  several  hours 
at  about  70°  F. 

Michels  and  Shiver  ^  conclude  their  study  in  a  southern 
state  in  the  following  words  :  *'  It  may  be  added  that  our 
experience  during  the  past  two  years  convinces  us  that, 
during  the  warm  season,  butter  produced  from  a  ration 
containing  cottonseed  meal  is  more  satisfactory  than  that 
produced  from  concentrates  that  yield  a  relatively  soft 
butter-fat.  The  cottonseed  meal  butter  '  sets  up ' 
better  at  the  table."     This  is  an  example  of  the  way 

1  Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Palmer,  Leroy  S.,  Effects  of  Feeding 
Cottonseed  Products  on  the  Composition  and  Properties  of 
Butter,  Univ.  Mo.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Res.  Bui.  27,  p.  41,  1916. 

2  Michels,  John,  and  Shiver,  F.  S.,  Water  Content,  Melting 
Point  and  Keeping  Quality  of  Butter,  S.  C.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui. 
125,  p.  14,  1907. 


FROM    CHURN    TO    PACKAGE  131 

nature  provides  for  various  conditions.  Cotton  grows 
in  the  South,  and  when  the  by-products  of  this  plant  are 
fed  to  cows,  the  butter  will  stand  up  much  better  under 
the  southern  range  of  temperature  than  butter  produced 
by  cows  that  have  not  been  fed  cottonseed  products. 

Eckles  and  Palmer  ^  say  further :  "  The  effects  of 
feeding  cottonseed  products  in  the  directions  indicated 
are  due  largely,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  amount  of  cotton- 
seed oil  which  they  contain."  Later  Eckles  and  Palmer 
write :  "  The  feeding  of  large  quantities  of  cottonseed 
meal  and  whole  cottonseed,  as  still  practiced  in  many 
localities  in  the  South,  must  be  considerably  modified  if 
the  butter  industry  of  that  part  of  the  country  is  to  attain 
its  proper  place  in  the  butter  industry  of  the  nation.  The 
use  of  the  whole  seed  as  a  feed  for  dairy  cattle  is  to  be 
strongly  discouraged  on  account  of  its  excessive  oil 
content."  According  to  Hunziker,  ^lills,  and  Spitzer,- 
the  feed  is  the  most  dominant  factor  controlling  the 
chemical  composition  of  the  milk-fat.  They  say  :  ''  Feeds 
rich  in  vegetable  oils,  also  blue-grass  pasture,  produce 
butter-fat  relatively  high  in  olein,  low  in  volatile  acids, 
and  make  a  soft  butter.  Feeds  rich  in  starches  and  sugars 
and  poor  in  vegetable  oils,  also  dry  hay,  tend  to  increase 
the  volatile  acids,  decrease  the  olein,  and  produce  a  rela- 
tively firm  .  butter."  Eckles  and  Shaw  ^  conclude  the 
report  of  their  work  by  saying  that   "  the   feed   of  the 

1  Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Palmer,  Leroy  S.,  Effects  of  Feeding 
Cottonseed  Products  on  the  Composition  and  Properties  of 
Butter,  Univ.  Mo.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Res.  Bui.  27,  p.  41,  1916. 

-  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  Mills,  H.  C,  and  Spitzer,  Geo.,  Moisture 
Control  of  Butter —  1,  Factors  not  under  the  Control  of  the  But- 
termaker,  Purdue  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  159,  p.  356,  1912. 

3  Eckles,  C.  H.,and  Shaw,  R.  H.,  The  Influence  of  Breed  and 
Individuality  on  the  Composition  and  Properties  of  Milk,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri.,'B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  156,  p.  27,  1913. 


132  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

animal  is  probably  a  greater  factor  than  breed  or  individ- 
uality in  influencing  the  nature  of  the  fat." 

Influence  of  breed. — It  has  already  been  seen  that  the 
breed  has  a  certain  effect  on  the  condition  of  the  milk- 
fat.  Eckles  and  Shaw  ^  assert  that  the  breed  apparently 
is  a  factor  having  some  influence  on  the  Reichert-Meissl 
number,  which  is  a  measure  of  the  volatile  acids.  The 
highest  Reichert-Meissl  number  was  found  in  the  Jersey 
fat,  while  the  fat  of  Holsteins  gives  a  lower  reading.  This 
statement  coincides  with  the  expression  of  Hunziker,  Mills, 
and  Spitzer,-  who  state  :  ''  The  butter-fat  from  Ayrshires 
and  Holsteins  contains  less  volatile  acids  and  more  olein 
and  makes  a  softer  butter  than  that  from  the  Jerseys."  It 
would  seem  from  these  statements  that  the  fat  from  the 
Guernseys  and  Jerseys  would  churn  with  more  difficulty 
than  that  from  other  breeds.  However,  from  actual 
experience  in  churning,  it  is  known  that  the  milk-fat 
from  these  breeds  collects  more  readily  than  that  of  the 
Ayrshires  and  Holsteins.  The  probable  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  larger  fat  globules  in  the  milk  of  the  Guernseys 
and  Jerseys  cohere  more  readily  in  the  churning  process 
than  the  smaller  fat  globules  of  other  breeds.  In 
creameries  where  large  quantities  of  cream  are  handled 
this  factor  is  not  of  great  importance. 

Influence  of  stage  of  lactation.  — The  milk-fat  produced 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  period  of  lactation  is  more  difficult 
to  churn  than  that  of  any  other  stage.  Hunziker,  Mills, 
and  Spitzer  ^  found  that,  at  the  beginning  of  the  period 

1  Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Shaw,  R.  H.,  The  Influence  of  Breed  and 
Individuality  on  the  Composition  and  Properties  of  Milk,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  156,  p.  27,  1913. 

2  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  Mills,  H.  C,  and  Spitzer,  Geo.,  Moisture 
Control  of  Butter —  1,  Factors  not  under  Control  of  the  Butter- 
maker,  Purdue  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  159,  p.  356,  1912. 


FROM   CHURN    TO   PACKAGE  133 

of  lactation,  the  volatile  acids  were  the  highest  and  the 
olein  was  the  lowest.  They  assert  that  the  volatile 
acids  decrease  and  the  olein  increases  as  the  period  ad- 
vances. This  subject  is  more  fully  discussed  in  paragraph 
99.  There  is  a  close  relation  between  the  size  of  the  fat 
globules  and  the  condition  of  the  fat,  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  churning  quality  of  the  cream. 

99.  Size  of  milk-fat  globules.  —  The  size  of  the  milk- 
fat  globules  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  churning  quality 
of  cream.  The  large  fat  globules  come  in  contact  with 
each  other  more  readily  than  do  the  small  ones.  The  size 
of  these  small  divisions  of  fat  is  probably  affected  by  the 
same  factors  that  control  the  condition  of  the  milk-fat. 
Very  often  a  "stripper's"  cream  is  difficult  to  churn  for 
the  fat  globules  are  small  and  not  easily  collected.  Hun- 
ziker.  Mills,  and  Spitzer  ^  say  that  the  size  of  the  fat 
globules  is  controlled  largely  by  breed,  period  of  lactation, 
and  by  change  of  feed  and  other  factors  affecting  the 
physical  condition  of  the  animal.  These  investigators 
add  :  "  The  Channel  Island  breeds  produce  milk  with 
much  larger  fat  globules  than  the  Ayrshires  and  Holsteins. 
Milk  from  fresh  cows  contains  larger  fat  globules  than  milk 
from  cows  well  advanced  in  their  period  of  lactation. 
Abrupt  changes  of  feed  temporarily  increase  the  average 
size  of  the  fat  globules."  Eckles  and  Shaw  ^  report  the 
following:  "  The  stage  of  lactation  exerts  a  marked  and 
uniform  effect  upon  the  relative  size  of  the  fat  globules. 
The  fat  globules  are  especially  large  immediately  after  the 

1  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  Mills,  H.  C,  and  Spitzer,  Geo.,  Moisture 
Control  of  Butter —  1,  Factors  not  under  Control  of  the  Butter- 
maker,  Purdue  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  159,  p.  356,  1912. 

2  Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Shaw,  R.  H.,  The  Influence  of  the  Stage 
of  Lactation  on  the  Composition  and  Properties  of  Milk,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  155,  p.  76,  1913. 


134  THE  BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

beginning  of  the  milking  period,  then  the  relative  size 
declines  sharply  during  the  first  six  weeks,  remains  fairly 
constant  for  five  or  six  months,  after  which  the  decline  is 
much  more  rapid  to  the  end  of  the  lactation  period.  .  .  . 
The  Reichert-]\Ieissl  number  is  the  only  physical  con- 
stant of  the  fat  that  can  be  correlated  in  any  way  with 
the  relative  size  of  the  fat  globules.  The  data  indicate 
that  the  small  fat  globules  are  accompanied  by  a  low 
Reichert-Meissl  number."  If  the  size  of  the  fat  globules 
should  remain  constant  throughout  the  period  of  lacta- 
tion, the  cream  of  ''  strippers'  "  milk  should  churn  more 
readily  than  when  the  cow  is  fresh,  for  the  olein  content 
of  the  fat  increases  during  lactation,  which  means  that  the 
fat  is  softer  toward  the  latter  end  of  the  period  of  lactation. 
However,  it  is  generally  known  that  the  milk-fat  at  the 
end  of  lactation  is  collected  with  difficulty  in  churning. 
Therefore,  this  difficult  churning  must  be  caused  by  small 
milk-fat  globules.  Eekles  and  Shaw  ^  confirm  this  view 
for  they  state  that  the  churning  of  the  cream  became  more 
difficult  toward  the  end  of  the  lactation  period;  and  with 
some  cows  samples  were  found  that  could  not  be  churned 
under  any  conditions.  Homogenized  cream  in  which  the 
fat  globules  are  minute  can  not  be  churned. 

100.  Amount  of  cream  in  chum. — The  churn  should 
be  one-third  to  one-half  full.  There  should  be  enough 
cream  to  fall  readily,  and  yet  not  so  much  that  concussion 
does  not  take  place.  It  is  usually  necessary  to  raise  the 
temperature  a  few  degrees  if  the  churn  is  too  full,  for  the 
agitation  is  not  so  great  as  when  the  normal  amount  of 
cream  is  in  the  churn.     When  the  quantity  in  the  churn 

1  Eekles,  C.  H.,  and  Shaw,  R.  H.,  The  Influence  of  the  Stage 
of  Lactation  on  the  Composition  and  Properties  of  Milk,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  155,  p.  77,  1913. 


FROM   CHURN    TO   PACKAGE  135 

is  small,  a  large  proportion  sticks  to  the  sides  of  the 
machine  and  thus  agitation  is  diminished. 

101.  Speed  of  churn. — The  greatest  possible  agitation 
is  desirable.  Therefore,  the  churn  must  be  speeded 
carefully,  not  too  slow  nor  too  fast.  Just  before  the 
cream  breaks,  it  is  very  thick  and  adheres  to  the  walls  of 
the  churn.  At  this  stage,  the  speed  should  be  lessened 
when  using  a  hand  churn.  If  a  power  churn  is  employed, 
the  speed  should  be  uniform  and  at  the  rate  designated  by 
the  manufacturers. 

102.  Abnormal  micro-organisms.  —  Certain  micro- 
organisms, such  as  ropy  milk  bacteria  and  yeasts,  prevent 
the  cohesion  of  the  fat  globules.  Difficult  churning  is 
the  result.  However,  this  is  not  an  important  cause  of 
difficult  churning  for  it  does  not  often  occur. 

103.  Steps  in  "from  churn  to  package." — The  follow- 
ing practices  should  be  observed  to  secure  a  marketable 
product : 

1.  Have  the  temperature  of  the  cream  correct.  (See 
par.  95.) 

2.  Place  in  hot  water  all  the  woodenware,  such  as  ladles, 
printer,  and  the  like,  that  may  come  in  contact  with  the 
butter.  In  case  some  pieces  of  the  woodenware  are  large, 
it  is  necessary  to  run  the  hot  water  over  them.  The  pur- 
pose of  this  hot  water  is  to  fill  the  wood  with  moisture  so 
that  the  butter  will  not  stick  to  it.  After  these  utensils 
have  been  soaked  in  hot  water  sufficiently  long,  they  should 
be  placed  in  cold  water  or  the  water  should  be  sprayed 
over  them.  When  the  wood  is  warm,  the  butter  soon 
becomes  greasy  and  sticky  ;  whereas,  if  it  has  been  prop- 
erly cooled,  the  body  of  the  butter  is  not  affected.  Im- 
properly prepared  woodenware  is  often  the  cause  of 
greasy  and  smeary  butter. 


136  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

3.  Keep  the  churn  clean  and  so  set  that  it  will  not  turn 
over  during  the  filling  process.  If  the  churn  has  not  been 
used  for  two  or  three  days,  it  should  be  scalded  and  then 
cooled  with  cold  water.  Even  though  it  is  used  every  day, 
a  good  plan  is  to  moisten  the  interior  of  the  barrel  with 
cold  water,  so  that  the  cream  will  not  cling  to  the  walls. 

4.  Pour  the  cream  into  the  churn  through  a  wire  or 
perforated-tin  strainer.  In  case  of  small  churns,  brass 
or  copper  wire  strainers  are  the  most  satisfactory.  These 
wire  strainers  should  have  about  20  meshes  to  the  inch. 
For  straining  the  cream  into  small  churns  or  straining  the 
buttermilk  from  either  small  or  large  churns,  these  wire 
strainers  may  be  made  by  soldering  the  brass  or  copper 
wire  cloth  to  a  suitable  frame.  Often  the  wire  may  take 
the  place  of  the  bottom  of  a  large  dipper.  The  purpose 
of  straining  the  cream  when  it  is  put  into  the  churn  is  to 
catch  any  foreign  matter,  such  as  flies  and  brush  bristles, 
and  to  cut  or  retain  the  lumps  of  curd  that  may  have 
formed  in  the  ripening  process.  When  cream  is  rather 
poor  in  milk-fat,  and  when  it  has  been  highly  ripened,  the 
serum  becomes  a  rather  hard  curd,  which,  if  not  strained 
out,  will  cause  streaks  or  mottles  in  the  butter.  Occa- 
sionally these  particles  of  curd,  if  very  hard,  appear  in 
the  butter  as  little  white  specks,  which  are  sometimes 
known  as  "  white-caps."  Such  variation  in  color  is 
very  objectionable  to  the  purchaser. 

5.  Add  the  color  to  the  cream  in  the  churn.  Usually 
one  to  three  ounces  of  color  to  one  hundred  pounds  of 
milk-fat  is  sufficient.  This  may  vary  with  diiTerent 
brands  of  color,  seasons  of  the  year,  breed  of  cows,  and 
market  requirements.  Ordinarily,  the  butter-maker  is 
not  much  concerned  about  the  natural  color  of  the  milk- 
fat,  for  he  can  easily  color  the  butter  artificially  when  he 


FROM   CHURN    TO    PACKAGE  137 

knows  the  strength  of  the  color  solution  and  the  demand 
of  the  market.  These  factors  he  learns  by  experience. 
If  the  butter-maker  forgets  to  put  the  color  in  the  cream, 
it  may  be  mixed  in  the  dry  salt  and  worked  into  the 
butter.  Probably  it  will  be  necessary  in  this  case  to 
overwork  the  butter  somewhat  in  order  to  distribute  the 
color  and  salt  properly. 

If  unsalted  butter  is  made  in  the  summer,  when  the 
natural  color  of  the  milk-fat  is  high,  it  is  often  necessary 
to  send  a  statement  to  the  purchaser,  informing  him  that 
no  artificial  color  has  been  used.  This  is  especially  neces- 
sary if  the  trade  is  critical,  and  if  the  cows  producing  the 
milk-fat  are  largely  Guernsey  or  Jersey.  Unsalted  but- 
ter should  not  be  high  in  color,  for  the  trade  that  con- 
sumes this  butter,  w^hich  is  largely  the  Jews,  demands 
that  no  artificial  color  be  added. 

6.  After  securely  fastening  the  cover,  give  the  churn 
eight  or  ten  revolutions  and  then  pull  out  the  plug  or 
open  the  gate  in  order  to  let  the  gas  escape.  This  gas  is 
largely  carbon  dioxide  (CO2),  which  is  one  of  the  products 
of  fermentation.  It  is  usually  w^ll  to  hold  the  hand 
over  the  hole  in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  cream  from 
blowing  over  the  room.  Return  the  plug  or  shut  the  gate, 
and  revolve  the  churn  fifteen  or  twenty  times  more  and 
again  let  out  the  gas.  If  the  churn  is  not  too  full,  usually 
two  or  three  stops  for  this  purpose  are  sufficient. 

7.  The  churning  process  is  nearing  completion  when 
the  glass  becomes  clear.  The  particles  of  butter  should  be 
about  the  size  of  a  pea  or  a  kernel  of  corn,  for  the  butter- 
milk drains  off  more  readily  when  the  granules  are  of  this 
size  than  when  they  are  very  small.  Fig.  46  shows 
granules  that  are  too  small.  The  butter  is  not  floating 
sufficiently  high.     In  Fig.  47  the  granules  are  about  the 


138 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


proper  size.  The  butter  appears  somewhat  like  a  mass 
of  well-popped  pop-corn.  If  churned  too  long,  these 
butter  particles  collect  in  large  lumps,  and  too  much 


Fig.  46.  —  The  churning  process  is  not  complete,  for  the  granules  are 
too  small, 

buttermilk  is  incorporated.  When  too  much  buttermilk 
remains  in  the  butter,  bacteria  will  grow  on  the  milk 
sugar,  casein,  and  albumin,  and  thus  the  flavor  of  the  but- 
ter is  injured. 

8.  Drain  off  the  buttermilk  through  a  strainer.  This 
strainer  may  be  supplied  with  the  churn  or  it  may  be 
similar  to  the  wire  strainer  described  in  step  4. 

9.  In  washing  butter,  pour  in  just  enough  water  to 
aid  in  draining  off  the  buttermilk.  Then  close  the  door 
securely  and  add  at  least  as  much  water  as  there  was 
buttermilk  drained  off.  Possibly  more  water  should  be 
employed  in  this  second  washing,  if  the  churning  is  small. 


FROM    CHURN    TO    PACKAGE 


139 


The  temperature  should  be  about  48°  to  54°  F.  If  the 
temperature  is  too  low,  the  butter  will  be  too  hard  to  work 
in  the  salt  nicely.  When  the  butter  is  hard,  extra  working 
is  required  and  it  is  likely  to  be  tallowy.     If  the  butter  is 


Fig.  47.  —  The  churning  process  is  complete.  The 
granules  are  about  the  size  of  a  kernel  of  corn. 


too  soft,  it  will  be  greasy.  Revolve  the  churn,  in  high 
speed,  five  to  ten  revolutions  to  complete  the  washing. 
Both  wash  waters  should  be  drained  from  the  churn 
through  a  strainer. 


140  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

It  is  very  necessary  that  the  water  be  free  from  micro- 
organisms that  will  affect  the  flavor  of  the  butter  or  the 
health  of  the  consumer.  Therefore,  in  case  there  is  any 
suspicion  of  impurity  in  the  water,  it  should  be  pasteurized. 

10.  After  washing,  and  in  case  a  small  churn  is  em- 
ployed, place  the  butter  on  the  worker  or  in  the  bowl  that 
has  been  thoroughly  cooled,  and  distribute  the  salt  over 
it.  Sometimes  it  is  easier  to  spread  the  salt  over  the 
butter,  while  it  is  still  in  the  open  and  clustered  condition 
in  the  churn,  rather  than  when  it  is  bunched  together  on 
the  worker.  In  the  large  factory  churns,  the  butter  should 
be  gathered  on  the  shelf  and  trenched.  Then  the  salt 
should  be  put  in  the  trench  and  the  butter  pulled  over  it 
in  such  a  way  that  it  is  not  scattered  throughout  the 
churn.  This  method  of  putting  the  salt  into  the  butter 
does  not  waste  so  much  as  simply  scattering  it  over  the 
butter.  In  large  churns  that  have  two  doors,  the  quan- 
tity of  salt  should  be  divided  equally  in  two  portions  and 
one  division  placed  in  each  end  of  the  churn.  This  aids 
in  the  even  distribution  of  salt  in  the  butter. 

If  the  salt  is  dry  and  hard,  or  cold,  and  dissolves  slowly, 
it  is  well  to  place  it  in  a  vessel  and  just  cover  it  with  water 
at  the  same  temperature  as  that  of  the  wash  water,  or 
perhaps  two  or  three  degrees  higher.  After  standing  a 
few  hours,  the  salt  will  be  softened  and  warmed  and  will 
dissolve  in  the  butter  much  more  quickly  than  when  dry  or 
cold.  This  method  of  aiding  salt  to  dissolve  is  much  more 
satisfactory  than  to  allow  the  butter  to  stand  a  few  or  many 
hours,  and  then  to  complete  the  working  process;  for 
when  it  is  held  it  is  usually  placed  at  a  low  temperature 
and  consequently  is  too  hard  to  work  well.  In  creameries, 
where  not  many  churnings  are  made  each  day,  it  may 
be  convenient  to  allow  a  churning  to  stand  fifteen   or 


FROM   CHURN    TO    PACKAGE  141 

twenty  minutes  to  permit  the  salt  to  dissolve ;  but, 
where  many  churnings  are  made,  the  time  is  too  short  for 
delays  of  this  sort.  The  salt  should  dissolve  almost 
immediately  after  being  put  in  the  butter.  If  it  does  not 
soon  pass  into  solution,  it  may  be  treated  by  partially 
dissolving,  as  suggested  above. 

The  quantity  of  salt  to  put  into  butter  will  depend  on 
the  market.  The  average  is  one  to  one  and  one-half 
ounces  to  a  pound  of  milk-fat. 

11.  The  purpose  of  working  butter  is  to  distribute  the 
moisture  and  salt,  and  secondarily  to  compact  the  butter. 
When  working  by  hand,  do  not  give  the  ladles  a  sliding 
motion  over  the  butter,  as  this  will  make  it  greasy.  The 
working  process  may  be  in  a  bowl,  in  the  churn,  or 
on  a  worker.  Work  until  the  butter  is  compact  and  shows 
only  a  few  holes.  If  the  butter  has  not  been  worked 
sufficiently,  mottles  may  be  found  in  it  after  it  has  been 
in  cold  storage  for  a  day,  and  the  moisture  and  salt  will 
not  be  evenly  distributed. 

The  temperature  of  the  butter,  as  controlled  by  the 
churning  temperature,  the  temperature  of  the  wash-water, 
and  that  of  the  room,  should  be  such  that  the  body  of  the 
product  will  be  waxy.  If  the  butter  is  too  low  in  tem- 
perature, it  will  be  hard,  and  the  working  process  will  cause 
it  to  be  tallowy.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  temperature 
is  too  high,  the  butter  will  become  greasy  when  it  is 
worked. 

12.  As  soon  as  it  is  worked,  the  butter  is  ready  to  be 
placed  in  packages  to  suit  the  market.  The  packages 
should  be  clean  and  cool,  and  the  butter  should  be  packed 
firmly.  If  paper  or  wooden  packages  are  used,  particular 
precaution  must  be  taken  against  mold.  When  the  butter 
is  marketed  in  wholesale  packages,  such  as  tubs  or  boxes, 


142  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

they  may  be  prepared  in  the  following  way  if  there  is 
danger  of  mold  development :  (1)  Clean  each  container, 
if  necessary,  and  then  soak  it.  (2)  Place  each  tub  or 
box  over  a  steam  jet  and  heat  sufficiently  to  kill  most  of 
the  mold  and  to  open  the  pores  of  the  wood.  (3)  Put 
the  tub  or  box  over  the  paraffin  spray  and  throw  the  jet 
open  for  an  histant.  The  temperature  of  the  paraffin 
should  be  240°  F.  If  the  wood  is  not  hot  when  the  paraffin 
is  applied,  it  will  peal  off.  (4)  Allow  the  excess  paraffin 
to  drain  from  the  package.  (5)  Line  the  packages  with 
parchment  as  in  ordinary  practice.  This  paper  should 
have  been  boiled  to  kill  the  micro-organisms  on  it,  and 
allowed  to  cool. 

104.  Selection  of  packages  for  storage  butter.  —  If 
the  butter  is  packed  for  storage,  care  should  be  observed 
in  choosing  packages  of  sound  wood  only.  Mold  spores 
are  likely  to  be  harbored  in  unsound  material.  If  retail 
packages  are  employed  in  storing,  the  wrappers  should  be 
boiled. 

MOISTURE   OF   BUTTER 

Moisture  is  a  natural  constituent  and  ingredient  of  but- 
ter. Some  of  the  moisture  comes  from  the  cream,  some 
is  incorporated  in  the  washing  process.  The  varia- 
tion of  water  in  butter  is  about  10  to  20  per  cent  (see  par. 
8).  Butter  is  generally  eaten  on  bread.  Therefore,  the 
consistency  of  the  butter  should  be  such  that  it  will 
spread  properly.  The  moisture-content  of  butter  has  a 
direct  effect  on  its  spreading  properties.  If  it  contains  as 
low  as  12  or  13  per  cent  water,  the  body  of  the  butter  is 
likely  to  be  too  hard.  In  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in 
many  other  countries,  butter  is  considered  to  be  adul- 
terated if  it  contains  16  per  cent  or  more  of  moisture  (see 


FROM   CHURN    TO   PACKAGE  143 

par.  181).  It  is  right  that  there  should  be  a  legal  limit 
on  this  component  of  butter,  for  unscrupulous  manu- 
facturers, by  careful  control  of  the  working  process,  could 
incorporate  20  per  cent  water  without  suspicion  from  the 
average  consumer.  Another  reason  for  placing  a  legal 
limit  on  moisture  in  butter,  which  is  the  main  one,  is 
that  the  food  value  of  the  product  is  less  when  the  moisture- 
content  is  high. 

105.  Variation  of  moisture.  —  The  moisture  of  a  cer- 
tain churning  is  not  constant  throughout  the  mass.  The 
average  butter  varies.  According  to  Guthrie  and  Ross,^ 
of  fifty-one  packages  of  butter,  nine,  or  17.6  per  cent, 
showed  a  difference  of  1  per  cent  or  more  of  moisture 
in  adjacent  samples,  and  in  eleven  packages,  or  21.6  per 
cent,  there  was  a  difference  of  1  per  cent  or  more  between 
the  lowest  and  the  highest  moisture  tests.  This  butter 
was  received  from  different  creameries  in  New  York.  I/ce, 
Hepburn  and  Barnhart  ^  found  that  the  variation  of 
moisture  in  butter  ranges  from  .1  to  1.0  per  cent  between 
different  samples  representing  the  same  butter. 

The  moisture-content  of  butter  in  the  churn  is  usually 
a  little  greater  than  after  it  has  been  tubbed  or  printed. 
Raitt  ^  says  that  the  water  in  butter  after  being  packed 
was  about  .4  per  cent  less  than  when  it  was  in  the  churn. 
Most  of  the  butter  was  normally  worked,  and  it  was 
finished  in  a  Lusted  printer.      Even  distribution  of  mois- 

1  Guthrie,  E.  S.,  and  Ross,  H.  E.,  Distribution  of  Moisture 
and  Salt  in  Butter,  Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  336,  p.  21, 
1913. 

2  Lee,  Carl  E.,  Hepburn,  N.  W.,  and  Barnhart,  Jesse  M., 
A  Study  of  Factors  Influencing  the  Composition  of  Butter, 
Univ.  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  137,  p.  314,  1909. 

3  Raitt,  J.  A.,  Moisture  Control  in  Butter,  Thesis  Cornell 
Univ.  Library,  p.  31,  1915. 


144  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

tiire  in  butter  can  usually  be  accomplished  by  careful 
and  thorough  working. 

106.  Incorporation  of  moisture.  —  There  are  two  ex- 
tremes in  the  condition  of  moisture  in  butter.  Often 
the  butter  is  not  worked  sufficiently  to  incorporate 
the  moisture  properly,  in  which  case  the  water  collects 
in  pockets.  When  this  butter  is  cut,  it  appears  leaky. 
On  the  other  hand,  some  butter  is  worked  entirely  too 
much,  for  the  moisture  is  incorporated  in  droplets  so 
minute  that  the  product  appears  to  be  almost  *'  bone 
dry,"  which  is  not  desirable.  Such  butter  may  contain 
even  more  moisture  than  the  leaky  goods. 

107.  Control  of  amount  of  moisture. — The  amount  of 
moisture  in  butter  has  a  direct  relation  to  the  over-run. 
Therefore,  every  creamery  butter-maker  should  be  a 
student  of  this  process. 

The  many  factors  affecting  the  control  of  moisture  in 
butter  have  been  studied  by  several  experimenters. 
Such  questions  as  the  following  have  been  investigated 
to  this  end  :  the  temperature  of  the  cream  and  of  the  wash 
water,  amount  of  cream  in  the  churn,  percentage  of  fat  in 
the  cream,  amount  of  working,  pasteurized  or  raw  cream, 
degree  of  ripeness  of  the  cream,  churning  butter  in  wash 
water,  and  working  butter  in  wash  water.  Hunziker, 
Mills,  and  Spitzer  ^  summarize  their  work  in  these  words  : 
"  The  secret  of  moisture  control  lies  in  regulating  the 
churning  temperature  and  in  adjusting  the  amount  of 
water  present  during  the  working  process  according  to  the 
firmness  of  the  butter  as  determined  by  the  chemical, 
physical,  and  mechanical   properties   of   the   butter-fat, 

1  Hunziker,  0.  F.,  Mills,  H.  C,  and  Spitzer,  Geo.,  Moisture 
Controlof  Butter  — 2,  Purdue  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  160, 
p.  418,  1912. 


FROM   CHURN    TO   PACKAGE  145 

and  in  the  systematic  use  of  a  reliable  moisture  test." 
Raitt  ^  found  from  a  study  of  175  churnings,  that  the 
moisture-content  of  butter  can  be  controlled  very  closely 
by  working  it  in  the  presence  of  water  under  normal 
temperatures.  The  control  and  the  incorporation  of  mois- 
ture in  butter  are  largely  processes  of  properly  mixing 
water  and  butter.  The  operator  must  observe  care  in 
maintaining  reasonable  temperatures  so  that  the  butter 
will  be  waxy  ;  he  must  know  the  amount  of  butter  in  the 
churn  ;  and  he  must  employ  the  moisture  test  consistently. 
One  of  the  many  methods  of  controlling  the  amount 
of  moisture  in  butter  is  as  follows  : 

1.  After  the  butter  has  been  washed  and  the  water  is 
drawn  off,  revolve  the  churn  four  or  five  times  with  the 
workers  in  gear,  stopping  each  time  when  the  doors  are 
on  the  under  side  of  the  churn,  so  that  the  remaining 
water  will  run  out.  The  churn  doors  should  be  fastened 
loosely  to  permit  the  water  to  pass  out  and  still  retain 
the  butter.  Many  churns  do  not  drain  dry  unless  handled 
in  this  way. 

2.  Make  a  moisture  determination.  It  is  necessary  to 
work  the  butter  a  few  revolutions  of  the  churn,  as  directed 
in  step  1,  for  a  representative  sample  is  difficult  to  obtain 
immediately  after  washing. 

3.  Compute  the  amount  of  water  necessary  to  bring 
the  moisture  hi  the  butter  to  a  certain  standard.  For 
example,  there  are  900  pounds  fat  in  the  churn,  which  at 
20  per  cent  over-run  amounts  to  1080  pounds  of  butter. 
The  preliminary  test  shows  14.5  per  cent  moisture  in  the 
butter  and  15.5  per  cent  is  desired.  The  difference  be- 
tween these  two  tests  is  1  per  cent.     The  butter,  which  is 

1  Raitt,  J.  A.,  Moisture  Control  in  Butter,  Thesis  in  Cornell 
Univ.  Library,  1915. 


146  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

1080  pounds,  X  1  per  cent  =  10.8  pounds  water,  that  is 
necessary  to  raise  the  moisture-content  of  the  butter  from 
14.5  to  15.5  per  cent. 

4.  Add  the  computed  amount  of  water  to  the  butter. 
This  water  should  first  be  mixed  thoroughly  with  the  salt, 
in  case  salted  butter  is  being  manufactured. 

5.  Continue  the  working  process  until  the  salt  and 
moisture  are  thoroughly  distributed  and  incorporated 
and  until  the  butter  is  properly  compacted.  The  moisture- 
content  of  normally  worked  butter  should  not  vary  more 
than  .5  per  cent  from  one  part  of  the  churn  to  another. 
If  proper  temperatures  are  not  maintained,  the  ingredients 
may  not  be  thoroughly  distributed  and  incorporated,  or 
the  butter  may  be  greasy. 

108.  Natural  amount  of  moisture  in  butter. — The  av- 
erage person  thinks  that  there  is  a  natural  quantity  of 
moisture  in  butter.  It  is  apparent  after  careful  study 
that  it  should  rather  be  thought  of  as  *'  chance  "  instead 
of  "  natural  "  in  most  butter. 

109.  Creamery-men  should  control  moisture. — There 
is  an  impression  that  creamery-men  who  control  the 
moisture-content  of  their  butter  are  going  beyond  reason- 
able methods ;  whereas,  they  are  really  employing  only 
an  approved  and  definite  system  in  their  business.  A 
creamery  cannot  meet  competition  unless  it  practices 
good  methods  of  operation,  such  as  the  control  of  the 
composition  of  its  manufactured  product. 

OVER-RUN 

Over-run  is  the  increase  of  butter  over  the  milk-fat. 
It  is  usually  considered  that  over-run  is  the  difference 
between  the  amount  of  fat  that  is  bought  and  the  quantity 
of  butter  that  is  sold. 


FROM    CHURN    TO    PACKAGE  147 

110.  Factors  that  affect  over-run.  —  Over-run  is  af- 
fected by  the  amount  of  moisture,  salt,  and  curd  that 
the  butter  contains,  as  well  as  by  the  losses  that  occur  in 
manufacturing.  These  losses  may  be  as  follows :  fat 
in  the  skimmed-milk,  carelessness  in  weighing  the  milk  or 
cream,  improper  testing,  spills,  fat  in  the  buttermilk,  over- 
weight on  butter,  shrinkage  of  butter,  fat  in  milk  or  cream 
that  adheres  to  the  utensils,  and  the  like. 

111.  Over-run  on  the  farm  and  in  the  creamery.  — 
The  over-run  on  the  farm  is  about  13  per  cent.  Ras- 
mussen  ^  found  that  the  average  over-run  on  the  farms 
in  New  Hampshire  was  13.4  per  cent.  In  the  creamery, 
where  more  butter  is  made,  the  over-run  is  greater,  for 
the  percentage  loss  is  usually  less.  A  creamery  of  average 
size  should  obtain  a  larger  over-run  than  a  small  one,  and 
the  large  creamery  should  average  the  highest  over-run 
of  all.  The  percentage  over-run  in  a  butter  factory  should 
be  15  to  22  per  cent.  Generally  a  gathered-cream  plant 
secures  a  greater  increase  than  a  whole-milk  creamery, 
because  it  does  not  incur  loss  in  separation  of  the  milk. 
A  careful  operator  with  a  good  accounting  system  usually 
maintains  a  high  over-run. 

COLOR 

The  color  of  butter  is  an  important  factor  in  the  market- 
ing of  the  product.  Certain  trades  require  a  light  shade, 
others  desire  a  medium  one,  and  still  other  consumers  want 
a  very  dark  yellow  color.  All  markets  prefer  a  uniform 
color  throughout  the  year,  in  which  case  artificial  coloring 
material  must  be  added. 

1  Rasmussen,  Fred,  A  Study  of  Farm  Buttermaking  in  New 
Hampshire,  N.  H.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  141,  p.  280,  1909. 


148  THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 

112.  Natural  color.  —  The  natural  coloring  matter  in 
butter  comes  from  the  feed.  Pahner  and  Eckles  ^  state 
as  follows  : 

*'  The  fat  of  cows'  milk  owes  its  natural  yellow  color  to 
the  pigments  carotin  and  xanthophylls,  principally  carotin, 
the  well-kno^Ti,  wide-spread,  yellow  vegetable  pigments 
found  accompanying  chlorophyll  in  all  green  plants. 

''  The  carotin  and  xanthophylls  of  milk-fat  are  not 
synthesized  in  the  cow's  body,  but  are  merely  taken 
up  from  the  food  and  subsequently  secreted  in  the 
milk-fat. 

''  There  is  some  difference  among  different  breeds  of 
dairy  cows  in  respect  to  the  maximum  color  of  the  milk- 
fat  under  equally  favorable  conditions  for  the  production 
of  a  high  color.  Each  breed  of  cows,  however,  will  under- 
go the  same  variation  in  color  of  the  milk-fat  which  follows 
a  withdrawal  or  addition  of  carotin  and  xanthophylls, 
especially  carotin,  to  the  feed.  Under  some  conditions, 
also,  the  apparent  breed  characteristic  largely  disappears. 
The  popular  opinion  in  regard  to  the  breed  characteristic 
has  been  overemphasized,  and  statements  in  regard  to 
it  should  in  the  future  be  qualified  with  a  statement  of 
the  conditions  of  feed,  etc. 

"  Under  normal  conditions  cows  of  all  breeds  produce 
very  high  colored  milk-fat  for  a  short  time  after  parturi- 
tion. The  pigments  of  the  fat  at  this  time  are  identical 
with  the  normal  pigments  of  the  fat.  Their  increase  at 
this  time  is  probably  due  to  the  physiological  conditions 
surrounding  the  secretion  of  the  milk  of  the  freshening 
animal." 

1  Palmer,  Leroy  S.,  and  Eckles,  C  H.,  The  Principal  Natural 
Yellow  Pigment  of  Milk  Fat,  Part  II,  Univ.  Mo.  Agri.  Exp. 
Sta.,  Res.  Bui.  10,  p.  386,  1914. 


FROM    CHURN    TO    PACKAGE  149 

113.  Artificial  color.  —  The  first  artificial  color  used 
in  intensifying  the  shade  of  butter  was  a  water  extract 
of  certain  vegetables,  the  carrot  being  used  chiefly.  Later 
coal  tar  dyes  were  employed.  Now  a  few  of  these  dyes 
only,  which  are  fat  soluble  and  are  harmless,  are  permitted 
to  be  used.  Following  is  the  position  held  by  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture:^  ''The  coloring  of 
butter  is  specifically  permitted  in  the  law  of  August  2, 
1886  (24  stat.  209),  and  the  coloring  of  cheese  in  the  law 
of  June  6,  1896  (29  stat.  253).  It  is  held  by  the  Depart- 
ment that  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  does  not  repeal  the 
provisions  of  the  acts  referred  to  above,  and  the  addition 
of  harmless  color  to  these  substances  may  be  practiced 
as  therein  provided,  and  that  the  presence  of  coloring 
matter  specifically  recognized  by  acts  of  Congress  as  a 
constituent  is  not  required  to  be  declared  on  the  label.'* 
Most  butter  color,  at  present,  is  of  vegetable  origin; 
and  the  annatto  seed  ^  is  the  main  source  of  the  coloring 
substance.  About  3  per  cent  of  this  seed  is  coloring 
material.  This  color  is  mixed  in  an  oil  solvent  so  that  it 
will  color  the  fat  and  not  the  casein  of  the  milk  or  cream. 
It  is  interesting  to  know  that  cheese  color  is  mixed  in  an 
alkaline  solution  which  has  an  affinity  for  the  casein  of 
the  milk. 

114.  Mottles  ha\'e  a  direct  effect  on  the  commercial 
value  of  the  butter,  as  seen  in  Fig.  48  (page  150).  An 
ideal  color  is  one  that  is  uniform  throughout,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  49.  The  exact  source  of  mottles  in  butter  has  not 
been  studied  as  much  as  many  other  phases  of  the  manu- 

1  Coloring  of  Butter  and  Cheese.  Westervelt's  Pure  P'ood 
and  Drug  Laws,  p.  1457,  1912. 

2  The  seed  of  Bixa  Orellana,  a  tropical  small  tree,  of  the  natural 
family  Bixacece. 


150 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


factiiring  process.  According  to  Van  Slyke  and  Hart,^ 
"  ]Mottles  in  butter  are  due  primarily  to  the  presence  and 
uneven  distribution  of  buttermilk  adhering  to  the  outer 
surface  of  the  small  granules ;  and,  secondarily,  to  the 
hardening  and  localizing  effect  of  the  salt  brine  upon  the 


Fig.  48.— a  mottled  butter. 


proteid  of  the  buttermilk  thus  retained  in  butter.  The 
light  portions  of  mottled  butter  owe  their  lighter  color 
to  the  presence  of  localized  proteid  (usually  casein  lactate). 
The  yellow   or   clear   portions   occur  where   the   spaces 

1  Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  and  Hart,  E.  B.,  The  Proteids  of  Butter  in 
Relation  to  Mottled  Butter,  N.  Y.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  263,  p.  70, 
1905. 


FROM   CHURN    TO    PACKAGE  151 

between  the  butter-granules  are  filled  with  clear  brine  and 
are  comparatively  free  from  casein  compounds.  Several 
hours  are  required  to  complete  the  action  of  the  brine 
upon  the  proteid  of  the  butter."     A  few  years  later  Lee 


Butter  with  uniform  color. 


and  Sammis  ^  reported  that  they  could  produce  mottles 
by  emulsifying  dry  milk-fat  which  had  been  previously 
freed  from  casein  by  filtering  through  paper  with  water 
by  means  of  the  homogenizer.  Salt  was  then  added 
to  the  product.  The  butter  showed  typical  mottles  when 
the  salt  was  not  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  mass. 

^  Lee,  Carl  E.,  and  Sammis,  J.  L.,  Mottles  in  Butter,  Report  of 
the  Director,  Univ.  Wis.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  p.  31,  1911-1912. 


152  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

Alottling  of  butter  may  thus  be  produced  entirely  in- 
dependently of  the  casein  which  is  contrary  to  the  theory 
of  Van  Slyke  and  Hart.  Examination  of  this  butter  under 
the  microscope  showed  that  in  the  portions  which  were 
lighter  in  color,  the  water  was  present  in  the  form  of 
innumerable  minute  droplets,  thus  rendering  these  layers 
opaque,  while  in  the  darker  portions  the  droplets  of  water 
were  much  larger  but  fewer  in  number,  thus  rendering  the 
butter  more  translucent. 

The  researches  of  Lee  and  Sammis  have  been  recently 
confirmed  by  Hunziker  and  Hosman  ^  who  have  added  to 
the  information  showing  that  the  size  and  position  of  the 
moisture  droplet  is  the  important  factor  in  causing  mottles 
in  butter.  Whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  mottles,  it  is 
definitely  known  that  under  normal  conditions,  when 
butter  is  thoroughly  worked,  the  color  is  uniform.  It  is 
also  accepted  that  mottles  are  not  found  in  unsalted  butter. 

115.  Faded  color.  —  ^Yhen  butter  is  exposed  for  only  a 
short  time  to  light  and  air,  it  soon  loses  its  color.  It 
may  become  as  white  as  snow.  It  is  said  that  when  too 
much  neutralizer  is  added  to  lower  the  acidity  of  cream 
the  color  may  fade. 

SALT   BLISTERS 

116.  Cause.  —  Salt  spots  on  butter  are  caused  by  the 
evaporation  of  the  moisture,  thus  leaving  a  deposit  known 
as  a  ''salt  blister."  When  leaky  butter  is  exposed  to 
the  air,  the  blisters  are  larger  than  when  the  butter  has 
been  thoroughly  worked  so  that  the  moisture  is  incor- 
porated in  minute  droplets.  Very  few  blisters  should 
appear  on  a  properly  worked  product.  Excessive  salt  is 
not  the  cause  of  blisters. 

^  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  and  Hosman,  D.  Fay,  A  Study  of  the  Causes  of 
Mottles  in  Butter,  Jour.  Dairy  Sci.,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  2,  p.  77,  1920. 


FROM   CHURN    TO    PACKAGE  153 

PACKING    BUTTER 

Butter  should  be  put  in  suitable  packages  properly 
prepared.  It  should  be  carefully  packed  and  not  simply 
thrown  into  the  containers. 

117.  Wholesale  packages.  —  The  butter  should  be 
packed  in  a  compact  mass.  In  case  of  the  cubes,  care 
should  be  observed  in  filling  the  corners.  INIuch  of  the 
butter  that  is  put  in  tubs  is  so  poorly  tamped  that  great 
holes  are  seen  when  the  tub  is  lifted  off,  and  the  liner  is 
stripped  from  the  butter.  Such  a  product  does  not  have 
a  pleasing  appearance  on  the  sales  counter.  The  finish 
of  the  package  is  also  important,  as  seen  in  Fig.  55. 

Shrinkage.  —  Careful  preparation  of  the  packages  by 
soaking,  steaming,  and  paraffining  not  only  makes  them 
more  sanitary  but  less  likely  to  lose  moisture  in  shipping. 
Rogers  ^  found  that  the  shrinkage  of  butter  in  unparaffined 
tubs  was  about  six  times  greater  than  in  the  paraffined 
packages.  His  figures  show  a  loss  in  weight  of  .946  per 
cent  in  the  unparaffined  tubs  and  a  shrinkage  of  .165  per 
cent  in  the  paraffined  tubs.  Guthrie^  reports  a  loss  of 
.29  per  cent  on  100  tubs  of  butter  that  was  held  134  days 
in  paraffined  tubs  at  0°  F.  to  - 10°  F. 

Different  states  have  laws  controlling  the  weight  of 
butter.  New  York  state,  for  example,  has  the  follow^ing 
regulation:'^  "Butter  in  crocks  or  tubs.  The  maximum 
variation  allowed  will  be  one  per  cent  (1  %),  but  the 
variation  of  twehe,  taken  at  random,  must  not  run  uni- 
formly below." 

1  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Paraffining  Butter  Tubs,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri., 
B.  A.  I.,  Cir.  130,  1908. 

2  Guthrie,  E.  S.,  Butter  Shrinkage,  Jour.  Dairy  Sci.,  Vol.  1, 
No.  2,  p.  136,  1917. 

'  Supt.  of  Weights  and  Measures  New  York  State.  Weights 
and  Measures,  Bui.  No.  3,  1914. 


154  THE   BOOK  OF   BUTTER 

118.  Retail  packages.  —  The  packages  that  go  to  the 
consumer  should  be  neat  and  pleasing  in  appearance.  If 
this  butter  is  in  prints,  it  should  be  wrapped  in  parchment 
and  packed  in  wooden  or  corrugated  paper  boxes.  The 
wooden  packages  should  be  lined  with  parchment  paper. 
When  shipping  long  distances,  and  sometimes  in  supplying 
a  local  trade,  the  prints  should  be  placed  in  paper  cartons 
before  being  packed  in  the  shipping  box. 

Shrinkage.  —  The  shrinkage  of  print  butter  is  greater 
than  that  of  butter  marketed  in  the  larger  packages,  as 
there  is  more  surface.  After  a  study  of  this  subject 
Pickerill  and  Guthrie  ^  summarize  their  research  in  these 
words :  "  The  rate  of  loss  depends  principally  on  the 
temperature  and  humidity  of  the  storage  room. 

"  If  the  temperature  is  kept  down  to  50°  F.  and  the 
humidity  is  kept  above  90  per  cent,  at  least  a  month,  and 
perhaps  much  longer,  will  be  required  for  the  shrinkage 
to  approximate  the  limit  set  by  law,  provided  the  prints 
are  packed  in  boxes. 

"  If  the  temperature  is  60°  F.  or  above,  and  the  humidity 
is  85  per  cent  or  below,  the  shrinkage  will  approximate 
the  limit  set  by  law  in  a  space  of  ten  days  to  two  weeks, 
even  if  the  prints  are  packed  in  boxes. 

*'  The  degree  of  shrinkage  is  not  inversely  proportional 
to  the  weight  of  the  Avrapper  used,  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed." Paper  weighing  20,  25,  30,  40,  and  50  pounds 
to  the  ream  was  tried. 

"  The  degree  of  shrinkage  decreases  to  a  consider- 
able extent  when  the  prints  are  placed  in  cartons.  The 
other  two  methods  of  packing,   however  —  leaving  the 

1  Pickerill,  H.  M.,  and  Guthrie,  E.  S.,  Two  Factors  Causing 
Variation  in  the  Weight  of  Print  Butter,  Cornell  Univ.  Agri. 
Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  355,  p.  Ill,  1915. 


FROM  CHURN   TO  PACKAGE  155 

prints  dry  after  placing  them  in  boxes,  or  sprinkling  them 
with  water — produce  about  the  same  effect  on  the  degree 
of  shrinkage. 

"  In  the  average  small  store  refrigerator,  the  loss  will 
approximate  the  limit  set  by  law^  in  a  space  of  ten  days 
when  the  prints  are  piled  loosely  on  shelves." 

The  law  referred  to  by  Pickerill  and  Guthrie  is  the 
New  York  ^  regulation,  which  is  similar  to  the  rules 
of  many  other  states,  and  reads  as  follows :  "  The  maxi- 
mum variation  allowed  on  a  pound  print  to  be  three- 
eighths  of  an  ounce  on  an  individual  print,  provided  that 
the  average  error  of  twelve  prints,  taken  at  random,  shall 
not  be  over  one-fourth  of  an  ounce  per  pound."  A 
study  of  the  above  summary  makes  clear  that  the  New 
York  regulation  on  variation  in  weight  of  print  butter 
is  fair. 

119.  Printing.  —  Butter  is  printed  in  many  sizes  and 
shapes,  as  noted  in  Chapter  XII.  At  present  the  most 
popular  print  is  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  brick  and 
weighs  one  pound. 

History.  —  Butter  was  first  printed  in  the  region  of 
Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania.  Until  about  1900^  this 
was  practically  the  only  print  butter  market  in  the  United 
States.  A.  H.  Reid,^  Philadelphia,  was  the  inventor  of 
the  Lafayette  Printer,  which  was  one  of  the  first  machines 
on  the  market.  He  placed  the  printer  on  sale  about  1892. 
It  molded  a  single  print  at  one  time,  and  was  operated  by 
a  lever.     Later  several  block  printers,  as  seen  in  Fig.  50, 

1  Supt.  of  Weights  and  Measures  of  New  York  State,  Weights 
and  Measures,  Bui.  No.  3,  p.  21,  1914. 

2  Stewart,  R.  F.,  A  Brief  History  of  the  Print  Butter  Business, 
Published  by  Amer.  Butter  Cutting  Machine  Co.,  Elmsford, 
N.  Y. 

3  Reid,  A.  H.,  Letter  to  author,  1917. 


156 


THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 


were  designed.  Soon  the  call  came  for  machines  that 
would  print  faster.  The  first  of  these  larger  machines 
was  the  "  Acme  and  Lusted  "  which  was  used  to  print 
the  soft  butter  from  the  churn.  (See  Fig.  50.)  The 
Friday,  which  was  the  first  hard  butter-cutter,  was  in- 
vented in  1902  or  1903.  (See  Fig.  51.)  About  the  same 
time  the  Gehl  printer  was  invented.  A  year  or  two  later 
the  Challenge  came  on  the  market.  In  the  operation  of 
these  three  printers,  the  butter  is  packed  in  boxes  which 


Fig.  50.  —  Acme  and  Lusted  printer.     Single  poumi  iil'.rk  printers  are 
on  the  shelf  at  the  right. 

are  held  in  the  refrigerator  until  the  butter  is  hard.  Then 
it  is  forced  from  the  box,  or  the  box  is  pulled  from  it, 
depending  on  which  machine  is  used.  The  method  of 
cutting  the  butter,  as  seen  in  Fig.  51,  is  the  same  in  all 
three  machines.  These  t\'pes  of  printers  give  good  results 
when  the  butter  is  printed  in  creameries.  However,  when 
the  tub  attachment  is  employed  in  the  wholesale  ware- 
houses, the  results  are  not  altogether  satisfactory.  The 
tub  is  not  the  proper  shape  from  which  to  cut  butter, 
for  there  are  many  small  pieces  of  irregular  shape  that 


FROM   CHURN   TO  PACKAGE 


157 


are  cut  from  the  sides  of  the  packages.  In  1904,  R.  F. 
Stewart,  now  of  the  American  Butter  Cutting  Machine 
Company,  Elmsford,  New  York,  placed  a  machine  on 
the  market  that 
is  better  suited 
for  handUng  hard 
butter  on  a  large 
scale.  This  cut- 
ter, which  is  seen 
in  Fig.  52,  is 
the  most  used 
in  the  warehouses 
of  any  printer. 
Many  other 
printers  are  used. 
Among  these 
are :  Reid's  Self- 
Gauging  Butter 
Printer,  Elgin 
Butter  Cutter, 
The  Wizard  But- 
ter Printer,  Low 
Butter  Cutter, 
Simpson  Jumbo 
Butter  Mould  and 
Cutter. 

Proper  iceight. 
' —  Cutting  or 
molding  butter 
into  bricks  of  uniform  weight  is  one  of  the  greatest  problems 
of  printing.  Many  creameries  have  either  willfully  or 
carelessly  placed  a  product  on  the  market  that  was  under 
weight.     It  became  necessary  for  many  states  to  pass  reg- 


FiG.  51.  —  Friday  butter-cutter. 


158 


THE   BOOK  OF  BUTTER 


Fig.  52.  —  American  butter-cutter. 


Fig.   53.  —  Butter  scales  which  are  graduated  read  to  one  thirty' 
second  of  an  ounce. 


FROM   CHURN   TO   PACKAGE  159 

ulations  or  laws  to  control  this.  The  following  is  the  rule 
in  New  York  state :  ^  ''  Butter  in  prints  shall  be  marked 
in  terms  of  pounds  or  ounces  in  bold-faced  letters  at 
least  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  height."  (For  the 
remainder  of  this  regulation  see  par.  118.)  Some  con- 
cerns have  been  so  slack  in  business  methods  as  to  place 
pound  prints  on  the  market  that  were  one-fourth  ounce 
to  one  ounce  too  heavy.  To  prevent  this  loss,  it  is 
necessary  to  watch  the  process  closely  and  to  make  test 
weights  occasionally.  Many  large  creameries  weigh 
each  print  to  make  certain  that  they  are  giving  full  weight, 
and  to  check  loss  by  over-weight.  Delicate  scales,  of 
which  Fig.  53  shows  an  example,  are  necessary  for  this 
purpose. 

1  Supt.  Weights  and  Measures  of  State  of  N.  Y.     Weights  and 
Measures,  Bui.  No.  3,  p.  21,  1914. 


CHAPTER   X 

FLAVORS    OF    BUTTER 

Flavor  is  the  most  important  item  on  the  butter  score- 
card,  45  of  the  100  points  being  allotted  to  it.  Butter 
is  valuable  as  an  appetizing  agent,  and  it  is  natural  to 
expect  that  the  flavor  will  appeal  more  to  the  consumer 
than  the  amount  of  salt  contained,  or  even  the  general 
appearance  of  the  product,  as  indicated  by  the  condition 
of  the  body  and  of  the  color,  and  the  finish  of  the  pack- 
age. The  sale  of  the  butter  depends  largely  on  the  quality 
of  the  flavor.  Unfortunately,  in  most  markets  the  dif- 
ference in  price  of  the  various  grades  is  not  sufficient  to 
stimulate  effort  to  make  a  product  with  the  highest  flavor. 
This  phase  is  discussed  more  fully  under  "Marketing," 
Chapter  XII. 

120.  Basic  butter  flavor.  —  The  characteristic  flavor 
of  butter  is  in  the  butyrin.  Butter  made  from  fresh  milk 
has  a  mild,  sweet,  and  creamy  flavor.  Those  accus- 
tomed to  butter  with  rather  high  acidity  consider  the 
flavor  of  the  sweet-cream  product  flat.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  consumers  prefer  this  mild  creamy  flavor. 

121.  Absorbed  flavors.  —  It  has  long  been  recognized 
that  dairy  products  readily  absorb  flavors.  These  ab- 
sorbed flavors  are  often  termed  "  taints."  Among  the 
taints  that  may  be  absorbed  by  milk,  cream,  or  butter, 
are  the  following :  the  flavor  of  garlic,  onions,  cabbages, 
silage,    turnips,    cows,    barn,    dirt,    grass,    weeds,    wood, 

160 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER  161 

oil  as  from  butter  color,  buttermilk,  gasoline,  paper,  gro- 
ceries, metals,  and  the  like.  In  order  that  such  flavors 
shall  not  be  imparted  to  the  butter,  extreme  care  should 
be  observed  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  them  by  the 
milk  or  cream,  and  by  the  butter  itself.  When  the  flavor 
comes  from  the  feed,  as  in  the  case  of  cabbage,  silage,  or 
turnips,  it  may  be  prevented  by  feeding  the  cows  after 
milking.  The  garlic  flavor  can  best  be  kept  from  butter 
by  pasturing  the  cows  where  there  is  no  wild  onion. 
The  flavor  from  the  cows  and  from  the  barn  may  be 
minimized  by  proper  cleaning  and  ventilation.  Sufficient 
time  should  be  allowed  for  the  odors  of  the  manure  to 
pass  out  after  cleaning  the  barn,  and  for  the  dust  to  settle 
after  brushing  the  cows  before  milking.  Often  taints 
are  due  to  carelessness,  such  as  leaving  the  product  near 
onions,  gasoline,  or  in  a  poorly  ventilated  barn. 

122.  Developed  flavors.  —  There  are  numerous  flavors 
of  butter  that  develop  in  the  milk  or  cream  from  which  it 
is  made,  or  in  the  product  itself.  Following  is  a  list  of 
a  few  such  flavors :  old  cream,  poor  or  sour  milk,  cheesy, 
old  or  storage  butter  flavor,  cowy,  dirty,  bitter,  feedy, 
stale  or  musty,  rancid,  fishy,  oily,  metallic.  It  is  easy 
to  understand  that  when  cream  is  permitted  to  become 
several  days  or  a  week  old,  it  loses  its  freshness,  and 
fresh-tasting  butter  cannot  be  made  from  it.  It  is  also 
easily  seen  that  when  the  man  at  the  weigh-can  becomes 
careless  and  receives  sour  or  poor  milk  and  cream, 
which  may  contain  the  sum  of  many  flavors  that  ought 
not  to  be  present,  these  are  carried  through  to  the 
butter.  Very  often  the  poor  milk  flavor  develops  into 
the  cheesy  flavor.  The  old  or  storage  flavor  develops  in 
the  butter  itself.  This  is  common  to  all  grades  of  butter, 
although  it  is  less  marked  in  sweet-cream_  products.     The 


162  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

stale  or  musty  flavor  may  grow  in  the  cream  or  in  the 
butter.  The  cowy,  dirty,  feedy,  and  bitter  flavors  may 
develop  through  bacterial  action.  In  relation  to  the 
feedy  flavors,  Weigmann  and  Wolff  ^  state  :  '*  In  studies 
made  of  the  effect  of  Swedish  turnip,  carrot  leaves, 
chives,  kohl-rabi  leaves,  grass,  hay,  straw,  beets,  cabbages, 
and  other  feeds  upon  the  flavor  of  butter  it  was  found 
that  changes  in  flavor  were  in  part  due  to  the  taste  and 
odor  of  the  feeds  and  in  part  to  bacteria  found  on  these 
feeds  which  generate  new  flavors.  While  it  is  probable 
that  each  group  or  type  of  bacteria  has  a  specific  action 
in  producing  taste  and  odor,  it  is  not  certain  if  the  same 
feed  medium  will  produce  the  same  taste  and  odor  with 
different  types  of  bacteria."  If  these  particular  bacteria 
grow  in  any  of  the  dairy  products,  it  may  be  assumed 
that  the  grow1:h  of  certain  micro-organisms  does  intensify 
the  flavor  of  certain  plants. 

The  bitter  flavor  is  usually  the  product  of  bacterial 
growth.  Wolff  -  writes  :  "  The  author  found  large  num- 
bers of  bacteria  on  the  leaves  of  grass,  white  clover,  and 
yarrow  where  cattle  were  feeding.  About  80  per  cent 
belonged  to  the  coli  group.  Unless  the  udders  of  the 
cows  are  washed  these  bacteria  may  fall  into  the  milk 
pail  in  sufficient  numbers  to  cause  the  bitter  taste  often 
noticed."  Whether  or  not  Wolff  is  correct  in  thinking 
that  these  organisms  are  members  of  the  B.  coli  group, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  in  many  cases  the  bitter  taste  is 
due  to  micro-organisms.  Many  observations  show  that 
these  organisms  grow  best  at  low  temperatures,  such  as 

1  Weigmann,  H.,  and  Wolff,  A.,  (Landw.  Jahrb.),  46  (1914), 
No.  3,  pp.  343-365,  abs.  Exp.  Sta.  Rec,  Vol.  32,  p.  270. 

2  Wolff,  A.,  The  Cause  and  Nature  of  Bitter  Milk,  (]Milchw., 
Zentbl.)  5  (1909),  No.  2,  p.  67-73;  abs.  in  Chem.  Zentbl.,  1909, 
I,  No.  11,  p.  931.     Abs.  Exp.  Sta.  Rec,  Vol.  31,  p.  379,  1909. 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER  163 

50°  F.  They  flourish  in  milk  or  cream  that  is  sweet. 
When  acid  is  formed,  it  inhibits  the  growth  of  the  bac- 
teria. The  bitter  flavor  is  found  more  often  in  dairy  than 
in  creamery  butter.  When  present  in  the  latter,  the  source 
is  in  the  old  cream  which  has  been  held  for  three  or  four 
days  at  low  temperatures  in  an  almost  sweet  condition  if 
not  absolutely  sweet  to  the  taste.  In  other  words,  the 
bacteria  producing  the  bitter  flavor  will  not  grow  in  an 
acid  solution,  but  will  grow  in  a  medium  not  acidic  or  only 
slightly  sour;  and  they  grow  best  at  low  temperatures. 
This  is  not  an  important  consideration  with  a  creamery. 
The  remaining  flavors  of  the  above  list  are  treated  sepa- 
rately in  paragraphs  125,  126,  127.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  all  the  developed  flavors  have  their  origin  in 
the  activity  of  micro-organisms  or  in  their  enzymes. 

123.  Salted  versus  unsalted  butter.  —  Most  of  the 
butter  consumed  in  the  United  States  is  salted.  Many 
persons  like  the  flavor  of  a  lightly  salted  product,  but 
a  large  percentage  require  a  highly  salted  butter.  The 
variation  in  the  amount  of  salt  may  be  from  .5  to  5.0  per 
cent.  Usually  in  America  the  consumers  in  the  large 
cities  prefer  a  lightly  salted  product,  while  in  the  smaller 
towns  and  in  the  country  the  demand  is  for  as  high  as 
3  to  5  per  cent  salt.  The  demand  for  unsalted  or  so-called 
"  sweet  butter  "  is  much  less  than  for  the  salted  goods. 
It  is  said  that  about  one-sixth  of  that  consumed  in  New 
York  City  is  unsalted.  In  many  of  the  European  coun- 
tries, the  demand  for  an  unsalted  or  for  a  lightly  salted 
product  is  greater  than  in  America.  The  effect  of  the 
amount  of  salt  in  butter  in  relation  to  its  keeping  proper- 
ties is  discussed  in  par.  130. 

124.  Acidity.  —  The  amount  of  acid  that  should  be  in 
butter  depends  largely  on  the  market  and  whether  it  is 


164  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

to  be  held  in  cold  storage  or  consumed  within  a  few  days 
after  manufacture.  The  demand  of  the  consumers  is 
related  to  the  character  of  the  butter  flavor.  Some 
persons  like  the  mild  flavor  of  butter  low  in  acidity. 
Others  characterize  it  as  did  Patrick  ^  when  he  said,  "  The 
sweet  cream  had  lost  its  insipidity  and  possessed  a  flavor 
approaching  that  of  the  ripened  cream  butter."  Meyers  ^ 
makes  a  rather  blunt  conclusion,  saying  that  the  common 
preference  for  the  flavor  of  ripened  cream  butter  is  a  mere 
whim  and  will  be  done  away  with  as  soon  as  the  public 
finds  it  can  get  better  butter  without.  He  concludes  by 
stating  that  it  has  been  the  fashion  to  use  butter  that  has 
begun  sensibly  to  spoil  rather  than  that  from  pure  sweet 
cream.  It  must  be  remembered  that  since  Meyers  made 
these  statements  the  use  of  starter  has  become  a  general 
practice  in  creameries,  and  through  it  a  much  better  flavor 
may  be  imparted  to  the  butter  than  when  the  cream  is 
allowed  to  ripen  naturally. 

The  history  of  the  acidity  of  butter  is  an  interesting 
one.  Butter  was  first  made  on  a  small  scale.  The  milk 
or  cream  was  allowed  to  accumulate  until  there  was 
enough  to  churn.  On  standing,  this  milk  or  cream,  usually 
the  latter,  became  sour.  If  the  cream  had  been  held  at 
low  temperatures  ia  order  to  keep  it  sweet,  it  might  have 
developed  a  bitter  flavor  as  noted  above.  Also  it  was 
learned  by  experience  that  the  sour  cream  churned  more 
completely.  In  view  of  these  facts,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  the  public  in  general  prefers  butter  that  has  a  quick 
acid  flavor,  for  they  have  been  trained  to  it.  Since  it  has 
been  discovered   that  butter  made  from   cream  with   a 

1  Patriok,  G.  E.,  Sweet   Cream    Butter,  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.  Ia. 
State  Col.,  Bui.  8,  pp.  318-320,  1890. 

2  Meyers,  John  H.,  Abs.  Hoard's  Dairyman,  Nov.  29,  1889. 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER  165 

low  acidity  keeps  better  than  the  high  acid  cream  product, 
there  has  been  a  change  in  the  methods  of  manufacturing. 
In  time  the  pubHc  will  be  trained  away  from  its  present 
preference,  which  is  a  snappy  high  acid  flavor. 

The  acidity  of  the  cream  for  making  butter  varies  from 
about  .13  to  .8  per  cent  in  terms  of  lactic  acid.  The 
cream  from  fresh  milk  will  have  an  acidity  of  about  .13 
to  .16  per  cent.  This  depends  on  the  acidity  of  the  whole 
milk  from  which  it  was  separated  and  on  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  the  cream.  Some  markets  call  for  butter  made 
from  cream  with  an  acidity  of  approximately  .4  per  cent, 
and  others  call  for  .5  to  .6  per  cent  acid.  The  acidity  of 
cream  is  considered  more  fully  in  Chapter  VIII .  The 
acidity  of  butter  varies  under  different  conditions  ;  such  as, 
the  extent  that  the  butter  was  washed,  the  amount  of 
salt  contained,  whether  or  not  made  from  pasteurized  or 
unpasteurized  cream,  whether  or  not  the  cream  was  sour  or 
sweet,  the  temperature  of  the  room  where  held.  The 
amount  of  acid  in  butter  may  be  seen  in  Table  XIX 
on  the  comparison  of  the  acidity  of  sweet  and  ripened 
cream  butter  by  Larsen,  Lund,  and  INIiller.^ 

This  table  not  only  shows  the  amount  of  acid  that  may 
be  in  butter  soon  after  it  is  made,  but  also  the  extent 
of  the  increase  in  acidity  in  the  product  from  either  sweet 
or  sour  cream.  This  butter  was  held  at  the  temperatures 
of  a  creamery  refrigerator,  which  would  probably  be  from 
45°  to  55°  F.  According  to  the  researches  of  Larsen,  Lund, 
and  Miller,  there  was  a  fairly  close  comparison  in  the  in- 
crease of  acidity  and  the  decrease  of  the  score  of  the  butter 
until  the  eighth  week,  when  the  decrease  in  the  score  was 
much   more   rapid.      According   to   Rahn,   Brown,    and 

1  Larsen,  C,  Lund,  T.  H.,  and  Miller,  L.  F.,  Creamery  Butter, 
Agri.  Exp.  Sta.  S.  Dak.,  Bui.  122,  p.  714,  1910. 


166 


THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 


Smith/  "  Cold  storage  butter  may  be  very  low  in  score  with- 
out any  noticeable  change  in  acidity."  It  should  be  noted 
that  the  first  of  the  above  conclusions  was  under  creamery 
refrigerator  conditions,  and  that  the  latter  observations 
were  under  cold  storage  conditions  in  which  the  temper- 
ature was  —  6°  C.  On  the  general  market  at  least,  the  acid- 
ity of  the  butter  cannot  be  taken  as  a  criterion  of  flavor. 

Table  XIX 


CC.  N/IO  Alkali  to  Neutralize 

Cream 

10  G.  Butter 

Tubs 

a 

t 

I 

.3 

.3 

m 

m 
1 

Remarks 

<M 

■* 

CO 

00 

o 

(N 

■* 

to 

Aver. 

Ripened 

2.1 

2.8 

3.2 

3.4 

3.4 

3.7 

3.8 

4.1 

4.3 

Cream  3^  daj^s 

of  8 

cream 

old,  acidity 
0.65% 

Aver. 

Sweet 

1.1 

1.6 

1.8 

2.0 

2.2 

2.5 

2.6 

2.7 

2.9 

Cream  fresh 

of  8 

cream 

and  sweet, 
acidity  0.14% 

125.  Fishy  flavor. — Fishy  butter  has  a  peculiar  mack- 
erel taste  and  odor.  Its  character  is  more  pronounced 
than  any  other  flavor.  Fishy  flavor  is  common  in  many 
countries,  and  is  one  of  the  usual  flavors  in  cold  storage 
butter  unless  it  has  been  manufactured  from  sweet  cream. 
Gray  and  McKay  ^  conducted  preliminary  w^ork  on  the 
fishy  flavor,   but  the   first  exhaustive   research  on   this 

1  Rahn,  Otto,  Brown,  C.  W.,  and  Smith,  L.  M.,  Keeping  Qual- 
ities of  Butter,  Mich.  Agri.  Col.  Exp.  Sta.,  Tech.  Bui.  2,  p.  43, 
1909. 

2  Gray,  C.  E.,  and  McKay,  G.  L.,  The  Keeping  QuaHties  of 
Butter  Made  under  Different  Conditions  and  Stored  at  Different 
Temperatures,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bui.  84,  p.  23,  1906. 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER  167 

subject  was  conducted  by  Rogers.^  Much  subsequent 
research  has  been  made  by  Rogers  and  his  co-workers, 
as  well  as  by  other  investigators,  that  confirms  the  first 
results.  Rogers  ^  reports  that  there  is  a  relation  between 
the  amount  of  working  that  butter  receives  and  the  fishy 
flavor.  In  the  latter  experiments  this  has  not  been  sub- 
stantiated. His  important  finding  was  reported  as  fol- 
lows :  ''In  all  cases  in  which  the  records  were  complete, 
it  was  found  that  those  experimental  butters  which  be- 
came fishy  were  made  from  high  acid  cream.  Fishy 
butter  was  made  from  cream  acidified  with  lactic  and 
acetic  acids.  However,  cream  with  high  acidity  does  not 
uniformly  develop  fishiness."  Rogers'  final  conclusion 
was :  ''  Fishy  flavor  may  be  prevented  with  certainty  by 
making  butter  from  pasteurized  sweet  cream.  Butter 
made  from  pasteurized  sweet  cream  with  a  starter  added, 
but  without  ripening,  seldom  if  ever  becomes  fishy."  A 
possible  reason  for  the  latter  butter  not  becoming  fishy 
may  be  that  less  acid  remains  in  it.  It  is  important  to 
know  how  much  acid  may  be  present  in  the  cream  from 
which  the  butter  is  made,  without  causing  the  fishy 
flavor.  The  following  statement  by  Rogers,  Thompson, 
and  Keithley  ^  sheds  light  on  this  subject  as  well  as  giv- 
ing additional  data  on  the  relation  of  acidity  of  the  cream 
to  the  fishy  flavor  of  the  butter :  ''  In  a  tabulation  of  the 
examination  of  259  samples  of  experimental  butter  from 
cream  of  known  acidity,  of  137  samples  from  cream  hav- 
ing an  acidity  below  0.3  per  cent  or  over,  60,  or  49.2  per 
cent,  were  fishy." 

^  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Fishy  Flavor  in  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept  of  Agri., 
B.  A.  I.,  Cir.  146,  1909. 

2  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Thompson,  S.  C,  and  Keithley,  J.  R.,  The 
Manufacture  of  Butter  for  Storage,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I., 
Bui.  148,  p.  8,  1912. 


158  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

The  above  results  have  been  confirmed  by  Reakes,  Cud- 
die,  and  Reid.^  The  summary  on  ''fishy  flavor"  can 
well  be  put  in  the  words  of  Supplee  ^  who  says  while  a 
definite  acid  condition  is  essential,  it  must  be  accom- 
panied by  some  other  equally  important  factor.  The 
data  show  that  this  factor  is  determined  by  biological 
agencies.  It  appears  that  these  factors  must  exist  in  a 
definite  and  delicate  relationship  and  that  if  the  proper 
equilibrium  is  disturbed,  the  characteristic  flavor  is  not 
manifest.  Numerous  results  and  observations  indicate 
that   the   unknown  transient   factor  is   trimethylamine, 

(CH3)3. 

126.  Metallic  flavor.  — •  This  flavor  of  butter  is  much 
like  the  taste  of  iron.  Very  often  it  is  similar  to  the 
fishy  flavor  and  usually  has  a  somewhat  oily  taste.  The 
copper  flavor  is,  of  course,  metallic.  Its  taste  is  rather 
bitter  and  is  more  intense  than  the  characteristic  metallic 
flavor  of  dairy  products.  There  are  two  sources  of  the 
metallic  flavor  in  butter:  one  is  by  absorption  of  the  metal, 
and  the  other  is  developed  by  bacterial  growth.  When  the 
quantity  of  iron  is  as  small  as  one  part  to  one  million  parts 
of  cream,  the  flavor  of  the  iron  is  distinct.  In  the  case  of 
copper,  only  one-half  part  of  the  metal  to  one  million  parts 
of  cream  is  sufficient  to  cause  a  distinct  flavor  of  the 
copper.      Rogers,    Berg,    Potteiger,    and    Davis  ^    state, 


1  Reakes,  C.  J.,  Ciiddie,  D.,  and  Reid,  H.  A.,  Fishy  Flavor  in 
Butter,  Jour,  of  N.  Zeal.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  4  (1912),  No.  1,  pp.  1-6. 
Abs.  Exp.  Sta.  Rec,  Vol.  26,  p.  778,  1912. 

2  Supplee,  G.  C,  The  Lecithin  Content  of  Butter  and  Its  Possible 
Relationship  to  the  Fishv  Flavor,  Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta., 
Mem.29,p.  148,  1919. 

3  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Berg,  W.  N.,  Potteiger,  C.  R.,  and  Davis,  B.  J., 
Factors  Influencing  the  Change  in  Flavor  in  Storage  Butter,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  162,  1913. 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER  169 

"  The  cream  may  take  up  iron  in  quantities  sufficient  to 
affect  the  flavor  from  rusty  cans  or  e\'en  from  the  exposed 
boltheads  or  other  metal  parts  of  the  churn. 

"  The  action  of  copper  is  similar  but  perhaps  more 
intense." 

The  writer  ^  found  that  when  conditions  are  favorable 
bacteria  produce  the  metallic  flavor.  The  most  impor- 
tant factor  in  the  development  of  this  flavor  is  the  acidity 
of  the  cream.  If  very  little  acid  is  present,  the  metallic 
flavor  will  rarely  develop.  Except  in  buttermilk,  a  high 
fat-content  of  the  medium  is  essential.  Of  241  samples 
of  cream  in  sterilized  glass  bottles,  the  metallic  flavor 
was  produced  in  79  by  inoculation  with  buttermilk 
having  this  flavor ;  and  of  157  samples  of  cream  in  steril- 
ized glass  bottles,  which  were  inoculated  with  individual 
bacteria,  52  showed  metallic  flavor.  The  organism  causing 
this  is  a  member  or  a  strain  of  the  Bacterium  lactis  acidi 
group.  To  prevent  the  formation  of  the  metallic  flavor, 
the  cream  should  be  churned  when  sweet  or  when  the 
acidity  is  low,  such  as  .3  per  cent  lactic  acid  or  less. 

127.  Rancid  flavor.  —  Rancidity  is  a  specific  flavor 
of  dairy  products.  It  is  a  term  often  used  erroneously, 
for  most  persons  confuse  it  with  the  strong  or  stale,  or 
some  other  "  off  "  flavor  of  butter.  Quoting  Brown  :  ^ 
''  By  the  term  '  rancidity  '  is  meant  not  simply,  as  is  gen- 
erally supposed,  a  development  of  free  acid,  though  this 
is  the  general  concomitant  of  rancidity,  but  any  chemi- 
cal or  physical  change  in  the  character  of  the  fat  from  the 
normal.     Rancidity,    according    to    the    present    most 

1  Guthrie,  E.  S.,  Metallic  Flavor  in  Dairy  Products,  Cornell 
Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  373,  1916. 

2  Brown,  C.  A.,  Jr.,  Contribution  to  the  Chemistry  of  Butter- 
fat,  Amer.  Chem.  Soc.  Jour.,  21,  2,  1899. 


170  THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 

commonly  accepted  understanding  of  the  term,  is  simply 
oxidation."  Rahn,  Brown,  and  Smith  ^  write,  ''Butter 
is  said  to  be  rancid  if  it  has  an  undesirable  taste  or  smell, 
due  to  an  aged  condition,  that  cannot  be  described  defi- 
nitely by  other  terms." 

In  contrast  to  these  definitions  are  the  following  state- 
ments from  two  butter  judges.  According  to  White  :  ^ 
"  If  the  student  is  given  some  stale  tallow  and  told  that 
it  is  rancid  and  then  is  given  some  stale  lard  and  told  that 
it  is  also  rancid,  he  will  be  able  to  distinguish  that  the 
smell  is  not  the  same.  If  he  is  then  given  some  butter 
which  has  developed  a  butyric  acid  odor  he  will  find  still 
a  different  odor,  and  the  question  would  naturally  be  asked 
which  of  the  three  is  and  should  be  defined  as  rancid. 
If  the  odors  found  in  the  tallow  and  lard  are  rightly  defined 
as  rancid,  then  the  butyric  acid  odor  in  butter  known  by 
all  butter  judges,  commission  men,  butter  buyers,  butter 
makers  and  dealers  in  general,  should  be  called  something 
else,  as  they  are  not  the  same ;  though  that  found  in  butter 
may  be  called  rancid  as  a  general  term,  meaning  stale, 
but  specifically  it  perhaps  should  be  called  butyric  odor. 
The  butyric  odor  gradually  passes  off  since  it  is  volatile,  but 
there  will  then  still  remain  a  stale  odor  and  this  will  smell 
like  stale  tallow.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  butyric  acid  odor 
is  the  true  rancid  odor,  then  the  odors  found  in  the  other 
fats  and  oils  should  not  be  defined  as  rancid."      Keiffer^ 

1  Rahn,  Otto,  Brown,  C.  W.,  and  Smith,  L.  IM.,  Keeping  Qual- 
ities of  Butter,  :Mich.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Tech.  Bui.  2,  1909. 

2  White,  B.  D.,  Rancidity,  Letter  to  the  author,  1910. 
(White  was  formerly  in  charge  of  butter  investigations,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.) 

3  Keiffer,  P.  H.,  Rancidity,  Letter  to  the  author,  1910. 
(Keiffer  is  the  president  of  the  Gude  Bros.  Keififer  Co.,  butter 
merchants  in  New  York  City.) 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER  171 

stated  that  he  commonly  used  the  term  rancid  when 
butter  had  an  over-sour  strong  flavor.  He  pronounced 
the  odor  of  the  distillate  of  the  Reichert-Meissl  determi- 
nation to  be  much  like  the  rancid  flavor.  By  others 
rancidity  is  considered  to  be  a  butyric  acid  flavor.  It  is 
easily  recognized  by  an  expert  butter-judge. 

Rancidity  in  butter  is  not  common.  In  a  recent  pub- 
lication 1  a  review  has  been  given  of  the  subject  of  ran- 
cidity, and  in  subsequent  experimental  work,  such  as 
pumping  air  through  the  cream,  subjecting  the  butter 
for  various  periods  of  time  to  the  air,  high  temperature, 
and  various  conditions  of  light,  rancidity  was  not 
found.  The  examination  of  two  samples  of  old  butter 
did  not  reveal  the  rancid  flavor.  One  of  these  samples 
was  twelve  years  and  the  other  680  days  old.  In  each 
case  the  iodine  number  which  is  a  measure  of  oxidation, 
and  the  Reichert-Meissl  number  which  shows  the  extent 
of  development  of  volatile  fatty  acids,  remained  within 
the  range  of  these  constants  in  fresh  butter.  There  was 
an  increase  in  the  acid  number  but  no  rancidity. 

The  final  conclusion  of  the  study  of  this  flavor  is  that 
the  cause  of  rancidity  is  probably  butyric  acid;  also 
that  rancidity  of  butter  as  defined  by  butter-dealers  and 
expert  butter  judges  is  rarely  found.  It  is  not  the  flavor 
usually  known  as  such  by  the  average  person. 

128.  Effect  of  pasteurization.  —  If  the  temperature 
during  pasteurization  is  too  high,  a  cooked  flavor  is  likely 
to  be  imparted  to  the  butter.  In  a  few  days  this  scorched 
taste  will  disappear  ;  nevertheless,  it  is  wise  not  to  permit 
the  temperature  of  the  cream  to  rise  too  high.  For  further 
discussion  see  par.  69. 

1  Guthrie,  E.  S.,  Concerning  Rancidity  of  Butter,  Jour.  Dairy 
Sci.,  vol.  1,  No.  3,  p.  218,  1917. 


172  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

129.  Effect  of  the  individuality  of  the  cow.  —  It  is 

thought  that  the  milk  of  different  cows  varies  more  or 
less,  even  though  the  animals  may  be  fed  and  otherwise 
handled  in  the  same  way.  The  period  of  lactation  may 
also  be  an  important  factor  in  the  flavor  of  the  milk. 
Eckles  and  Shaw  ^  state  :  ''  An  abnormal  odor  and  flavor 
developed  in  the  milk  of  certain  cows  when  near  the  end 
of  the  lactation  period.  This  condition  was  not  present 
in  the  freshly  drawn  milk,  but  appeared  within  twelve 
hours,  even  when  the  milk  was  held  at  10°  C." 

130.  Effect  of  minor  factors  on  storage.  —  Salt  is  a 
chemical  compound  that  inhibits  the  growth  of  some 
micro-organisms.  Naturally  the  strength  of  the  salt 
solution  is  important.  Regarding  this  McKay  and  Lar- 
sen  ^  assert,  "  Salt  improves  the  keeping  quality  of  but- 
ter." Rahn,  Brown,  and  Smith  ^  write,  "  Salted  butter 
keeps  better  than  unsalted  butter,  above  the  freezing 
point  as  well  as  below  it."  Gray  and  McKay  ^  report 
the  following  result  of  their  experimental  work :  ''  Butter 
containing  low  percentages  of  salt  kept  better  than  did 
butter  of  the  same  lot  containing  higher  percentages  of 
salt."  It  was  the  common  opinion  at  one  time  that  butter 
high  in  salt  is  very  likely  to  become  fishy.      McKay  ^ 

1  Eckles,  C.  H.,  and  Shaw,  R.  H.,  The  Influence  of  the  Stage 
of  Lactation  on  the  Composition  and  Properties  of  Milk,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri.,  B.  A.  L,  Bui.  155,  p.  77,  1913. 

2  :McKay,  G.  L.,  and  Larsen,  C,  The  Keeping  QuaUty  of 
Butter,  la.  State  Col.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  71,  p.  30,  1903 

3  Rahn,  Otto,  Brown,  C.  W.,  and  Smith,  L.  M.,  Keeping  Quali- 
ties of  Butter,  Mich.  Agri.  Col.  Exp.  Sta.,  Tech.  Bui.  2,  p.  43, 
1909. 

4  Gray,  C.  E.,  and  McKay,  G.  L.,  The  Keeping  Quahties  of 
Butter  Made  under  Different  Conditions  and  Stored  at  Different 
Temperatures,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  84,  pp.  22-23, 
1906. 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER  173 

comments  on  this  matter  as  follows :  ''  The  high  salting 
did  not  impart  a  fishy  flavor  to  the  butter  made  from 
cream  received  sweet,  so  it  would  seem  to  the  writer  that 
the  odors  are  in  the  butter,  and  the  salt  simply  makes  them 
more  pronounced." 

The  author  has  had  opportunity  to  observe  the  effect 
of  the  quantity  of  salt  on  the  keeping  properties,  and  he 
thinks  that  within  reasonable  limits,  such  as  2  to  4  per 
cent,  it  has  very  little  to  do  with  the  keeping  properties. 
These  observations  are  based  on  the  examination  of  vari- 
ous lots  of  butter  at  different  times.  Some  was  made  in 
the  creamery  laboratory  at  Cornell  University  and  stored 
for  outside  parties,  and  some  was  experimental  butter, 
the  results  of  which  have  been  reported.^  The  Navy  De- 
partment has  stored  about  seven  or  eight  hundred  thousand 
pounds  of  butter  annually  for  the  past  ten  or  twelve 
years  and  the  salt  requirement  has  been  2.5  to  3.25  per 
cent.  A  saturated  brine  solution  at  ordinary  temperatures 
contains  about  26.5  per  cent  salt.  When  the  butter  tests 
13.0  per  cent  water  and  2.5  to  3.25  per  cent  salt,  the  salt- 
content  of  the  water  in  the  butter  is  17  to  25  per  cent. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  ice  cream  factories  and 
certain  butter  concerns  that  store  large  quantities  of  un- 
salted  butter  with  good  results.  Even  though  butter 
may  be  safely  stored  when  it  contains  no  salt,  it  is  for- 
tunate for  the  industry  that  the  call  of  the  trade  is  largely 
for  the  salted  product,  for  under  the  average  storage  condi- 
tions there  is  no  doubt  that  salt  acts  as  a  preservative. 

The  amount  of  washing  that  butter  receives  and  the 
quality  of  the  wash  water  is  important.  From  the  physi- 
cal standpoint,  butter  must  be  washed  because  the  brine 

*  Guthrie,  E.  S.,  Some  Studies  of  Butter,  Butter,  Cheese,  and 
Jour.,  Vol.  7,  No.  21,  p.  18,  1916. 


174  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

should  be  clear  and  not  milky.  From  the  bacteriological 
viewpoint,  the  buttermilk  should  be  washed  out  so  that 
the  bacteria  will  be  deprived  of  it  as  a  food.  According 
to  Jensen/  lactic  acid  bacteria  were  found  to  multiply 
much  more  rapidly  in  unwashed  than  in  washed  butter. 
This  was  not  true  of  some  of  the  other  types.  It  is  need- 
less to  say  that  the  wash  water  should  be  practically  free 
from  germs.  ]\IcKay  and  Larsen  ^  advise  the  use  of  one 
of  two  methods  of  treatment  when  the  water  is  impure ; 
i.e.  pasteurization  or  filtration.  They  seem  to  consider 
pasteurization  more  complete.  One  of  their  conclusions 
follows,  ''  Butter  made  from  pasteurized  cream  and 
washed  in  pasteurized  water  retains  its  normal  flavor 
about  twice  as  long  as  butter  made  from  unpasteurized 
water."  Melick "  asserts  that  there  is  a  direct  relation 
between  the  bacterial-content  of  the  wash  water  and  the 
keeping  quality  of  the  butter.  He  found  that  a  filter 
for  creamery  water  is  likely  to  be  only  a  source  of  con- 
tamination. He  considers  that  it  is  both  practical  and 
economical  to  sterilize  wash  water  for  washing  butter, 
and  he  adds  that  the  water  should  be  cooled  and  used 
immediately,  for  otherwise  the  practice  is  a  useless  expense. 
However,  it  seems  that  it  should  be  of  value  if  the  water 
is  properly  protected  from  contamination. 

131.  Effect  of  acidity  on  flavor  of  storage  butter.  — 
Usually  when  butter  is  said  to  be  in  storage,  it  is  assumed 

^  Jensen,  0.  A.,  Bacteriological  Studv  of  Danish  Butter. 
[Rev.  G6n.  Lait.  8  (1910),  Xo.  18,  pp.  409-417  ;  Centbl.  Bakt.,  etc.] 
2  abt.,  29  (1911),  Xo.  23-25,  pp.  610-616  ;  Molk.  Ztg.  Berlin,  21 
(1911),  Xo.  18,  pp.  205-207;  Exp.  Sta.  Rec.  216,  p.  478. 

2  McKay,  G.  L.,  and  Larsen,  C,  The  Keeping  Quality  of 
Butter,  la.  State  Col.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  71,  p.  30,  1903. 

3  Melick,  C.  W.,  Effect  of  Bacteria  in  Wash  Water  of  Butter, 
Kan.  Agri.  Col.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  138,  p.  222,  1906. 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER  175 

that  cold  storage  is  meant,  which  is  the  approved  method 
of  holding  for  long  periods.  The  flavor  resulting  from 
holding  any  butter  is  known  as  a  "  held  "  flavor.  Some- 
times this  "  held  "  or  ''  storage  "  flavor  is  not  very  notice- 
able; on  the  other  hand,  much  storage  butter  becomes 
very  strong.  Among  the  most  common  storage  flavors 
are  the  "  fishy  "  and  "  metallic,"  which  are  discussed 
above.  It  should  be  noticed  that  the  apparent  indirect 
if  not  the  direct  cause  of  the  most  common  ''  ofT  "  flavors 
is  a  large  or  fairly  large  amount  of  acid  in  the  butter. 
Attention  has  been  called  previously  to  the  fact  that  the 
fishy,  metallic,  and  rancid  flavors  do  not  develop  in  sweet 
cream  butter.  In  addition  to  the  above  discussions  on 
flavors  and  that  in  par.  69,  the  following  is  offered : 

Quoting  Dean  :  ^  ''  Sweet  cream  butter  does  not  possess 
'  keeping  quality  '  the  same  as  ripened  cream  butter." 
Contrary  to  Dean's  conclusion  is  that  of  Patrick.^  He 
reported  that  the  ripened  cream  butter  became  stronger 
during  storage  than  the  sweet  cream  butter.  It  agreed 
with  the  researches  of  Gray  and  McKay,  Guthrie  and 
Rogers  and  his  co-workers  as  reported  under  "  acidity," 
''  flavor  improvement,"  "  fishy  flavor,"  "  rancid  flavor," 
and  "metallic  flavor."  In  eight  samples^  of  sweet 
cream  and  eight  of  sour  cream  butter,  it  was  found  that 
the  sweet  cream  product  deteriorated  during  storage 
at  0°  F.,  1.37  points,  and  that  the  sour  cream  butter, 
which  had  been  stored  at  the  same  temperature,  scored 
5.14  points  less  after  storage  than  when  fresh.     This 

1  Dean,  H.  H.,  Sweet  Cream  Butter,  Ontario  Agri.  Col.,  Ann. 
Rpt.  21,  p.  64,  1895. 

2  Patrick,  G.  E.,  Sweet  Cream  Butter,  la.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta., 
Bui.  8,  pp.  318-320,  1890. 

3  Guthrie,  E.  S.,  Some  Studies  of  Butter.  Butter,  Cheese  and 
Egg  Jour.,  Vol.  7,  No.  21,  p.  18,  1916. 


176  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

butter  was  scored  by  five  expert  judges  when  put  in  stor- 
age, and  was  again  scored  by  the  same  judges  when  taken 
out  of  storage  212  days  later.  Two  churnings  were  made 
each  day,  or  the  cream  came  from  the  same  vat,  the  only 
diflPerence  being  that  a  good  starter  was  used  to  ripen  the 
cream  from  which  the  sour  goods  were  made. 

The  exact  cause  of  the  deterioration  in  butter  is  not 
known.  It  is  undoubtedly  due  to  some  of  the  decomposi- 
tion products  of  micro-organisms  or  to  enzymes.  It  is 
certain  that  lactic  acid,  which  exists  in  butter  in  larger 
quantities  than  any  other  acid,  is  very  unstable.  With 
this  in  mind,  the  discussion  of  the  whole  subject  of  keep- 
ing properties  may  be  summarized  in  the  following  quo- 
tations. According  to  Rogers  and  Gray  :  ^  "It  is  appar- 
ent that  the  deleterious  effect  of  high  acidity  was  not  due 
to  any  organism,  enzyme,  or  other  substance  which  can 
be  destroyed  by  heat.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  some  by- 
product of  bacterial  growth,  unaffected  by  heat,  had  a 
marked  influence  on  the  flavor  of  the  butter.  It  is  prob- 
able that  this  was  a  by-product  of  the  lactic  acid  and  bac- 
teria and  that  the  by-product  was  the  lactic  acid  itself." 
Three  years  later  the  same  general  idea  was  expressed  by 
Rogers,  Thompson,  and  Keithley  ^  in  the  following  state- 
ment :  ''It  is  evident,  however, that  to  make  butter  of  good 
keeping  quality  any  treatment  that  increases  the  chemical 
instability  of  the  product  should  be  avoided.  Butter  of 
good  quality  can  be  made  from  sweet  pasteurized  cream  and 
the  deteriorating  influence  of  the  acid  thus  eliminated." 

1  Rogers,  L.  A.,  and  Gray,  C.  E.,  The  Influence  of  Acidity 
of  Cream  on  the  Flavor  of  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I., 
Bui.  114,  p.  17,  1909. 

2  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Thompson,  S.  C,  and  Keithley,  .J.  R.,  The 
Manufacture  of  Butter  for  Storage,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I., 
Bui.  148,  p.  9,  1912. 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER 


177 


132.  Micro-organisms  in  butter.  —There  is  a  certain  re- 
lation between  the  number  and  the  nature  of  the  organisms 
in  butter  and  its  flavor.  The  number  and  types  of  micro- 
organisms vary  considerably.  According  to  Rosenau, 
Frost,  and  Bryant/  the  number  of  bacteria  in  twenty-five 
sapples  of  butter  obtained  from  the  Boston  market  was 
as  follows  :  The  average  number  of  bacteria  to  a  gram  of 
butter  was  5,700,000 ;  the  lowest  number,  8,600;  and  the 
highest,  41,000,000.  They  found  that  the  number  of  bac- 
teria diminished  markedly  with  age ;  in  one  sample  the 
reduction  was  85.8  per  cent  in  two  weeks ;  in  another,  93.7 
per  cent  in  four  weeks  ;  and  in  still  another,  95.6  per  cent  in 
six  weeks.  Rogers  ^  found  that  the  number  of  micro-organ- 
isms in  butter  decreases  very  rapidly.  The  following  table 
shows  the  results  of  a  study  of  twelve  samples  of  creamery 
butter  from  one  churning  that  were  held  in  one  pound  tin 
cans  hermetically  sealed  and  stored  at  20°  C.  (68°  F.)  : 


Table   XX 


Bacteria   and   Yeasts   per  Gram   of  Butter 
(Series  5) 


Age  in  Days 

Total 

Lactic 

LiQUEPIERS 

TORULA 

Yeasts 

7 

5,351,130 

5,326,100 

, 

24,550 

14 

3,012,600 

2,823,600 

6,000 

183,000 

18 

92,700 

84,200 

— 

8,500 

25 

12,460 

12,000 

460 

Very  few 

91 

18,350 

17,850 

500 

000 

116 

675 

— 



«297 

— 

— 

— 

— 

"  sterile. 

1  Rosenau,  M.  J.,  Frost,  W.  D.,  Bryant,  Ruth,  A  Study  of  the 
Market  Butter  of  Boston,  Jour,  of  Med.  Research,  Vol.  30,  N.  S., 
Vol.  25,  pp.  69-85,  1914. 

2  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Canned  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,B.  A.  I., 
Bui.  57,  pp.  11-13,  1904. 


178 


THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 


Later  Rogers  ^  ran  another  series  of  experiments  with  the 
following  results.  In  this  series  there  were  twelve  cans 
of  creamery  butter  from  a  single  churning  as  in  the  above 
experiments.  It  was  held  in  the  laboratory  seventy-three 
days  and  then  was  placed  in  an  incubator  at  23°  C. 
(73°  F.) : 


Table    XXI  —  Bacteria  and  Yeasts  per  Gram  of  Butter 
(Series  22) 


Age  in  Days 

Total 

Lactic 

LiQUEFIERS 

TORULA 

Yeasts 

7 

362,000 

318,000 

21,000 

23,000 

10 

194,000 

173,500 

3,300 

17,300 

14 

125,000 

122,300 

2,400 

300 

21 

23,600 

23,040 

— 

560 

114 

200 

000 

150 

000 

«251 

— 

— 

— 

— 

"  Only  a  few  liquefiers. 

The  number  of  lactic  acid  bacteria  in  the  first  examina- 
tion constituted  over  99  per  cent  of  the  total  number. 
They  decreased  rapidly,  until  at  the  end  of  116  days  none 
was  left.  The  liquefiers  were  more  persistent.  The 
results  reported  in  Table  XXI  are  similar  to  those  of 
Table  XX.  Rogers'  summary  is  given  in  the  following 
words :  ''  It  is  quite  evident  that  the  microscopic  life 
existing  in  the  butter  can  be  considered  as  only  indirectly 
responsible  for  the  change  in  the  acidity  or  the  flavor. 
In  series  22  there  was  no  perceptible  change  in  the  acid 
number  until  the  bacteria  had  reached  unimportant 
numbers   and   the   yeasts   had   nearly   disappeared.     In 

1  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Canned  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I., 
Bui.  57,  pp.  11-13,  1904. 


FLAVORS   OF   BUTTER  179 

series  5,  in  which  the  acidity  was  not  determined  in  the 
first  few  cans  opened,  there  was  no  marked  change  until 
both  bacteria  and  yeasts  had  nearly  reached  their  mini- 
mum number.  Of  the  bacteria  persisting  for  any  length 
of  time  only  the  lactic  acid  group  was  present  in  sufficient 
numbers  to  be  considered  as  a  possible  cause."  Sayre, 
Rahn,  and  Farrand  ^  report  similar  numbers  of  micro- 
organisms in  butter. 

There  are  many  species  of  micro-organisms  found  in 
butter.  Brown  -  asserts  that  he  isolated  eighty-eight 
different  species  from  two  samples  and  these  did  not 
include  molds  or  higher  forms  of  bacteria.  Of  these  there 
were  fifty-seven  bacteria  (cocci,  bacilli,  or  spirilla)  and 
thirty-one  yeasts. 

There  is  a  definite  relation  between  the  amount  of  salt 
in  butter  and  the  growth  of  many  of  the  organisms. 
Brown  -  states  that  of  the  eighty-eight  species  reported 
above,  twenty-four  bacteria  and  fifteen  yeasts  grew  on 
a  medium  when  the  brine  composition  is  12  per  cent  salt 
and  when  the  incubating  temperature  is  20°  C.  (68°  F.). 
Four  of  these  bacteria  and  six  of  the  yeasts  grew  well 
on  12  per  cent  brine  at  6°  C.  (43°  F.).  He  asserts  that 
12  per  cent  brine  has  a  much  more  inhibitive  action  on 
the  species  of  liquefying  yeasts  than  it  has  on  the  non- 
liquefiers.  It  should  be  remembered  that  a  12  per  cent 
brine  is  equal  to  1.08  per  cent  salt  in  the  butter  when  the 
latter  contains  14  per  cent  moisture.  Giltner  and  Baker  ^ 
report  that  salt  to  a  concentration  of  12  per  cent  does  not 

1  Sayre,  W.  S.,  Rahn,  O.,  and  Farrand,  Bell,  Keeping  Qualities 
of  Butter,  Mich.  Agri.  Col.  Exp.  Sta.,  Tech.  Bui.  1,  1908. 

2  Brown,  C.  W.,  Some  Actions  of  Micro-organisms  upon  the 
Constituents  of  Butter,  Sci.,  Vol.  35,  No.  893,  p.  231,  1912. 

3  Giltner,  W.,  and  Baker,  J.  D.,  Effect  of  Salt  on  Butter  Flora, 
Mich.  Sta.  Rpt.,  p.  209,  1915. 


180  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

retard  growth  in  all  cases,  and  that  the  growth  of  some 
organisms  is  not  prohibited  by  20  per  cent  salt.  Strepto- 
cocci are  sensitive  to  salt,  while  micrococci  and  staphylo- 
cocci tolerate  a  high  percentage.  Most  of  the  yeasts 
and  torulse  of  butter  are  not  easily  affected  by  salt,  yet 
they  cannot  withstand  as  much  as  some  of  the  cocci. 
Brine  with  a  salt-content  of  8  per  cent  retards  the  physio- 
logical processes  of  most  organisms.  Eight  per  cent  salt 
in  the  brine  is  equal  to  1.12  per  cent  in  the  butter  when 
the  moisture-content  of  the  butter  is  14  per  cent.  Thom 
and  Shaw  ^  state  that  "  species  of  Oidium,  Alternaria 
and  Claudosporium  cannot  develop  in  butter  containing 
2.5  per  cent  of  salt.  The  occurrence  of  any  of  these  forms 
in  a  sample  of  butter  indicates  low  salting."  They  also 
maintain  that  salt  up  to  2.5  to  3  per  cent  in  butter  is  suffi- 
cient to  eliminate  mold  or  reduce  it  to  a  negligible  amount. 
This  is  equivalent  to  the  use  of  a  12  to  15  per  cent  brine. 
This  amount  of  salt  is  normal  in  butter.  Thom  and 
Shaw  ^  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  excess  curd  in  butter 
favors  mold  growth  and  that  if  the  butter  is  properly 
washed  it  is  less  subject  to  the  mold. 

133.  Enzymes  in  butter.  —  The  enzyme-content  of 
butter  is  probably  not  an  important  consideration,  if 
the  cream  has  been  pasteurized  to  174°  F.  Rogers,  Berg, 
and  Davis  -  list  peroxidase,  catalase,  galactase,  and  lipase 
as  having  a  possible  effect  on  the  flavor  of  the  product. 

^  Thom,  Chas.  and  Shaw,  R.  H.,  Moldiness  in  Butter,  Jour, 
of  Agri.  Research,  Vol.  3,  No.  4,  p.  304,  1915. 

-  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Berg,  W.  N.,  and  Davis,  B.  J.,  The  Tempera- 
ture of  Pasteurization  for  Butter  Making,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri., 
B.  A.  L,  Cir.  189,  p.  310,  1912. 


CHAPTER   XI 
STORAGE  OF  BUTTER 

The  storage  of  non-perishable  food  products  has  been 
successfully  accomplished  for  many  years.  It  has  helped 
to  equalize  the  supply  of  food  during  different  seasons. 
The  holding  of  perishable  goods  from  the  time  of  greatest 
production  to  other  seasons  was  not  possible  on  a  large 
scale  until  the  advent  into  commerce  of  mechanical  re- 
frigeration, about  the  year  1890. 

134.  Temperatures.  —  Most  bacteria  grow  at  a  tem- 
perature above  50°  F.  Consequently,  if  a  butter  re- 
frigerator is  held  at  45°  or  50°  F.,  the  butter  will  not  only 
remain  firm,  which  is  essential  in  proper  refrigeration  of 
this  product,  but  the  growth  of  the  bacteria  is  largely 
prohibited.  These  are  the  temperatures  usually  obtained 
in  well  regulated  refrigerating  cars,  and  creamery  and 
store  refrigerators  where  ice  is  used  as  a  cooling  medium. 
Great  care  should  be  observed  in  keeping  the  refrigerator 
properly  closed,  for  it  does  not  take  long  for  practically 
all  the  cold  air  of  a  "  cooler  "  to  rush  out.  It  is  wise  to 
provide  an  entrance  room,  when  the  refrigerator  is  fairly 
large,  to  prevent  the  interchange  of  cold  and  warm  air. 
Brown  ^  states  that  from  one  lot  of  cream,  twenty-four 
bacteria  and  fifteen  yeasts  grew  w^ell  at  20°  C.  (68°  F.) 
and  that  four  of  these  bacteria  and  six  of  the  yeasts  grew 

1  Brown,  C.  W.,  Some  Actions  of  Micro-organisms  upon  the 
Constituents  of  Butter,  Sci.,  Vol.  35,  No.  893,  p.  253,  1912. 

181 


182  THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 

at  6°  C.  (43°  F.).  In  each  case  the  salt  concentration  of 
the  medium  on  which  the  organisms  were  studied  was 
12  per  cent.  This  calls  attention  to  the  effect  of  both  low 
temperature  and  the  quantity  of  salt.  It  should  also 
be  noted  that  68°  F.  is  about  room  heat  and  that  the 
temperature  of  the  refrigerator  may  rise  quickly  to  that 
of  the  room  if  great  care  is  not  observed. 

For  long  periods  of  storage,  the  temperature  must  be 
many  degrees  lower  than  may  be  sufficient  for  short 
periods.  According  to  Gray  and  McKay/  butter  kept 
slightly  better  at  — 10°  F.  than  at  10°  F.  There  was  a 
marked  difference  in  favor  of  these  lower  temperatures 
over  the  higher  one,  which  was  32°  F.     The  table  on  page 

183  from  Rogers,  Thompson,  and  Keithley  ^  shows  the  ad- 
vantage of  temperatures  near  0°  F.  for  storing  butter  over 
those  a  few  degrees  higher. 

The  average  number  of  points  that  the  butter  deteri- 
orated at  0°  F.,  10°  F.,  and  20°  F.,  was  1.92,  2.99,  and 
3.59  respectively.  It  is  apparent  that  low  temperatures 
are  essential  in  good  refrigeration.  This  table  also  calls 
attention  to  the  advantage  of  pasteurization  and  to  the 
use  of  unripened  cream  in  butter-making.  The  following 
statement  of  Rahn,  Brown,  and  Smith  ^  concerning  the 
growth  of  micro-organisms  at  low  temperatures  bears 
out  the  data  in  the  above  table  on  scores  of  butter  at 

1  Gray,  C.  E.,  and  McKay,  G.  L.,  The  Keeping  Qualities 
of  Butter  Made  Under  Different  Conditions  and  Stored  at 
Different  Temperatures,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.,  Bui.  84, 
p.  22,  1906. 

2  Rogers,  L.  A.,  Thompson,  S.  C,  and  Keithley,  J.  I.,  The 
Manufacture  of  Butter  for  Storage,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I., 
Bui.  148,  p.  25,  1912. 

3  Rahn,  Otto,  Brown,  C.  W.,  and  Smith,  L.  M.,  Keeping 
Quahties  of  Butter,  Mich.  Agri.  Col.  Exp.  Sta.,  Tech.  Bui.  2, 
p.  43,  1909. 


STORAGE   OF   BUTTER 


183 


different  temperatures :  "  There  are  micro-organisms 
found  in  butter  able  to  multiply  slowly  at  —6°  C.  in  salted 
butter.  Whether  these  organisms  are  able  to  cause  de- 
terioration of  butter  is  not  certain."  The  standard 
cold  storage  temperatures  for  butter  are  0°  to  — 10°  F. 

Table  XXII  —  Average   Deterioration  op  Butter  after 
Storage  at  Various  Temperatures 


Points  Lost  after  Storage 

Kind  of  Butter 

Stored  at 
0°F. 

Stored  at 
10°  F. 

stored  at 
20°  F. 

Points 

Points 

Points 

Raw  cream  butter  —  Creamery  A 
Raw  cream  butter  —  Creamery  D 
Raw  cream  butter  —  All  samples 
Pasteurized,  ripened  cream  — 

Creamery  B 

Pasteurized,  ripened  cream  — 

Creamery  E 

Pasteurized,  ripened  cream  — 

All  samples 

Pasteurized,    unripened    cream  — 

Creamery  C 

Pasteurized,    unripened    cream  — 

Creamery  D 

Pasteurized,    unripened    cream  — 

All  samples 

5.0 

1.7 
3.2 

2.2 

1.7 

2.0 

.6 

.4 

.5 

5.3 
4.1 
4.6 

3.0 

3.6 

3.3 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

5.8 

3.3 

4.8 

5.1 
4.0 
4.6 
1.5 
1.6 
1.6 

135.  Nature  of  buildings  and  business.  —  Cold  stor- 
age buildings  are  usually  large  and  the  business  is  con- 
ducted on  a  large  scale,  for  the  overhead  expenses  are 
less  than  when  the  enterprise  is  small.  One  of  the  most 
important  and  expensive  items  is  the  manufacture  of  the 
cold,  and  this  is  cheaper  when  produced  on  a  large  scale. 
The  buildings  are  usually  constructed  of  properly  insu- 


184 


THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 


lated  concrete.  The  insulation  makes  it  possible  better 
to  retain  the  cold ;  and  the  concrete,  besides  being  a  sub- 
stantial building  material,  is  sanitary.  Fig.  54  shows 
a  butter-room  in  a  modern  cold  storage  warehouse.  The 
business  of  operating  a  cold  storage  plant  is  largely  one 
of  renting  space.  This  space  is  leased  to  the  customer, 
who  usually  draws  out  the  product  when  it  is  needed  to 
supply  his  trade.     Sometimes  goods  are  placed  in  storage 


Fig.  54.  —  Section  of  butter  storage  room  in  a  modern  fireproof  cold 
storage  warehouse.  The  temperature  is  maintained  steadily  at  zero 
Fahrenheit. 

on  speculation  and  may  all  be  sold  and  taken  away  at 
one  time.  The  cold  storage  companies  issue  receipts 
that  are  negotiable.  Very  often  the  refrigerating  com- 
pany acts  as  a  commission  merchant  for  its  customers. 
This  is  probable  when  the  holder  of  the  storage  goods 
lives  in  a  distant  part  of  the  country.  Some  cold  storage 
warehouses  are  located  in  the  district  where  the  butter 
is  manufactured.  Occasionally  they  may  be  on  the  route 
of   transit   from   the   district   of  production   to   that  of 


Per  Mo. 

First  Mo. 

Thereafter 

Per  Pkg. 

Per  Pkg. 

13c. 

8c. 

15c. 

10c. 

18c. 

12c. 

20c. 

15c. 

25c. 

18c. 

STORAGE   OF   BUTTER  185 

consumption.     However,  they  are  usually  in  large  cities 
near  the  consumers. 

136.  Cost.  —  A  knowledge  of  the  cost  of  storing  butter 
may  be  obtained  from  the  following  list  of  rates : 

Butter  1  (Standard  60  lb.  tubs  or  50  to  60  lb.  boxes). 

Class 

A.  Carloads  (stored  and  delivered  in 

one  lot) 

B.  Lots  of  over  150  packages  . 

C.  Lots  of  75-150  packages     . 

D.  Lots  of  25-75  packages  .     . 

E.  Lots  of  less  than  25  packages 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  cost  of  storage  is  greater 
than  is  shown  in  this  list,  for  interest  and  insurance  are 
not  included.  According  to  Holmes,^  the  average  cost 
a  pound  for  storage  of  butter  is  2.532  cents  or  10.8  per  cent 
of  the  wholesale  price.  Holmes  also  states  that  the  aver- 
age time  of  holding  butter  in  storage  is  4.43  months. 

137.  Home  storage.  —  The  storage  of  butter  on  the 
small  scale  for  home  use  has  been  practiced  for  many 
years.  The  important  consideration  is  the  obtaining  of 
a  good  product  made  from  sweet  cream.  This  butter 
may  be  packed  solidly  in  jars.  Prints  may  be  used.  If 
the  butter  is  to  be  put  in  jars  in  a  mass,  the  containers 
should  f'rst  be  thoroughly  scalded.  After  packing,  the 
butter  should  be  covered  with  a  white  cloth  that  has 
been  scalded  in  boiling  water.  Then  a  covering  of  salt 
about  -^  inch  deep  should  be  put  over  the  cloth.  The 
purpose  of  this  cloth  is  to  aid  in  removing  the  salt,  when 
the  butter  is  taken  from  the  jar. 

^  Hygeia  Refrigerating  Co.,  Rates  and  Information,  Reference 
Booklet,  1922. 

-  Holmes,  Geo.  K.,  Cold-Storage  Business  Features,  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agri.  B.  S.,  Bui.  93,  1913. 


186  THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 

When  prints  are  used,  the  jars  should  he  treated  by 
scalding  as  in  the  above  case.  Next,  a  brine  should  be 
made  sufficiently  strong  to  float  an  egg.  This  will  re- 
quire about  one-fourth  as  much  salt  as  water.  In  some 
cases  it  is  wise  to  boil  the  water  to  kill  the  micro-or- 
ganisms in  it,  before  the  salt  is  added.  Then  a  white 
cord  should  be  tied  around  each  print,  for  the  wrapper  is 
likely  to  float  away  if  not  tied  to  it.  The  prints  are  then 
packed  in  the  jar  and  a  follower,  such  as  a  stone  plate 
or  a  wooden  circle,  placed  on  the  butter.  Occasionally 
concrete  followers  are  employed.  If  wood  is  used  for 
this  purpose,  care  must  be  obser\'ed  in  choosing  a  wood 
that  will  not  impart  an  undesirable  flavor  to  the  butter. 
The  next  step  is  to  place  a  stone  or  a  brick  on  the  follower 
to  keep  the  butter  submerged  in  the  brine.  These  fol- 
lowers and  weights  must  be  carefully  cleaned  and  scalded. 
Finally  the  brine  should  be  poured  over  the  butter.  It 
may  be  necessary  from  time  to  time  to  add  brine  to  keep 
the  butter  covered  with  the  salt  solution. 

The  print  is  more  convenient  to  take  from  the  jar 
than  solid  packed  butter.  Fifty  one-pound  prints  can  be 
packed  in  a  ten-gallon  jar.  Less  print  butter  can  be 
packed  in  smaller  jars,  to  the  gallon  capacity.  This  should 
be  kept  in  a  cool  place.  When  covered  carefully  with 
brine  or  salt,  butter  may  be  held  in  the  cold  room  where 
vegetables  and  fruit  are  kept. 

138.  Effect  of  storage  on  price. — The  effect  of  storing 
butter  on  the  price  is  difficult  to  estimate.  Holmes 
asserts  that  70  per  cent  is  put  in  storage  during  June, 
July  and  August  when  the  price  is  the  lowest.  Wilson  ^ 
states  that  about  25  per  cent  of  the  butter  of  the  United 

1  Wilson,  James,  Economic  Results  of  Cold  Storage,  Year 
Book  of  Dept.  of  Agri.,  pp.  27-32.     1911. 


STORAGE  OF  BUTTER  187 

States  is  put  in  storage.  It  is  apparent  that  when  this 
much  of  the  output  is  held  from  the  season  of  greater 
production  to  that  of  scarcity,  the  tendency  is  to  equalize 
the  prices ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  average  price 
for  the  year  is  lower  than  if  the  storage  of  butter  were 
not  possible. 

Some  storage  requirements.  —  GeneraX  health  requisites 
demand  certain  regulations  governing  the  storage  of  food. 
Different  states  have  pronmlgated  laws  of  which  the 
following  statements  of  the  New  York  State  law  are 
illustrative.  Cold  storage  warehouses  must  be  operated 
under  a  state  license  and  maintained  in  a  sanitary  condi- 
tion. All  packages  must  be  plainly  labeled,  showing  the 
dates  received  into  storage  and  the  time  discharged  there- 
from. When  cold  storage  food  which  has  been  held  more 
than  thirty  days  is  sold,  the  packages  or  the  food  itself 
must  bear  the  mark  "  cold  storage  goods,"  whether  handled 
in  the  same  container  as  when  in  storage  or  divided  into 
smaller  lots  or  units  after  being  removed  from  storage. 
The  time  limit  for  holding  butter  and  most  other  foods 
is  twelve  calendar  months.  As  additional  knowledge  of 
storing  food  is  accumulated,  some  of  the  restrictions  will 
probably  be  modified.  The  time  which  butter  may  be 
held,  for  example,  undoubtedly  varies  with  its  keeping 
qualities  as  well  as  with  the  holding  conditions.  The 
question  may  be  raised  as  to  why  a  time  limit  on  storage 
butter  is  necessary  and  why  it  should  be  branded,  for  if 
it  deteriorates,  the  consumers  should  detect  it  as  quickly 
as  in  fresh  goods.  On  the  other  hand,  even  though  the 
butter  is  palatable,  the  effect  on  health  of  long-time 
storage  is  not  known. 


CHAPTER   XII 

MARKETING 

The  first  butter  made  in  the  United  States  was  mar- 
keted mostly  through  the  country  stores,  although  some 
dairy-men  shipped  directly  to  the  consumer.  In  those 
early  days  the  quality  was  exceedingly  variable ;  how- 
ever, the  market  was  not  as  critical  as  it  is  now.  The 
time  came  when  the  farmers  in  many  communities  found 
that  to  market  their  butter  to  advantage,  it  was  wise 
to  organize  a  cooperative  establishment.  This  was 
especially  true  in  regions  remote  from  cities.  They  recog- 
nized that  the  opportunity  was  better  to  make  good  butter 
in  a  creamery,  because  of  the  first-class  equipment  of  the 
factory  and  the  superior  knoAvledge  of  the  creamery  butter- 
maker.  They  also  recognized  the  effect  of  better  and 
more  uniform  butter  on  its  market  value. 

GRADES   OF   BUTTER 

139.  History  of  grading.  —  Previous  to  the  advent  of 
creameries,  there  was  no  systematic  grading  of  butter. 
In  fact  at  the  present  time  there  is  no  universal  system, 
although  the  same  score-card  is  used  throughout  the 
country.  As  an  illustration,  "  extras  "  on  one  market 
does  not  mean  that  butter  in  the  same  grade  in  another 
city  is  of  comparable  quality.  It  is  generally  known  that 
the  New  York  trade  is  more  strict  than  the  Philadelphia 
buyers,  and  that  New  York   is  far  more   critical   than 

188 


MARKETING  189 

Boston.  Very  often  butter  ranking  as  medium  "  firsts  " 
in  New  York  will  sell  as  quickl}-  as  ''  extras  "  in  Boston. 
However,  the  grading  is  much  nearer  to  uniformity  now 
than  before  the  days  of  the  creamery.  At  present  butter 
is  not  made  in  so  many  small  lots  on  farms  as  previously, 
but  is  manufactured  in  larger  quantities  in  creameries. 
Thus  it  is  not  subject  to  so  many  variations  in  flavor, 
body,  color,  salt,  and  finish.  A\?>o  the  grading  is  more 
uniform  because  of  the  present  method  of  employing 
experts  in  scoring  butter  as  market  inspectors.  The 
teaching  in  grading  at  the  various  colleges  of  agriculture, 
state  fairs,  exhibitions  of  dairy-men's  associations,  and 
the  monthly  educational  scoring  of  dairy  products  in 
various  states,  undoubtedly  have  an  effect  toward  more 
uniformity  in  grading. 

In  the  days  when  there  were  no  creameries,  simple 
terms  such  as  ''fair,"  ''good,"  and  "prime"  were  em- 
ployed to  describe  the  quality  of  butter.  Later  the  words 
"  choice,"  "  fine,"  and  then  "  fancy  "  were  used  for  the 
best  grades.  A  general  grading  was  afterwards  estab- 
lished with  the  terms  "firsts,"  "seconds"  and  "thirds." 
When  the  creamery  butter  from  the  West  came  to  the 
market  it  was  recognized  as  being  better  than  the  dairy 
product  and  was  placed  above  the  grades  at  that  time, 
being  known  as  "  western  extras."  It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  first  creamery  in  the  United  States  was 
built  in  New  York  state  (see  Chapter  I).  However,  there 
was  a  large  demand  in  the  East  for  cheese  and  milk, 
whereas  the  best  outlet  for  the  dairy  in  the  middle-western 
states  was  by  means  of  butter.  About  1905  the  word 
"  western  "  was  supplanted  by  "  creamery,"  the  term  he- 
coming  "  creamery  extras."  The  reason  for  this  change 
was  that  many  creameries  had  been  organized  in  the  East, 


190  THE   BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

and  the  butter  was  selling  in  the  same  grades  as  the 
goods  from  the  West.  Later  the  word  '*  creamery  "  was 
omitted,  and  now  this  grade  is  known  as  ''  extras." 
There  have  been  a  number  of  similar  changes  in  the 
evolution  of  the  grades  of  butter  on  the  various  mar- 
kets. The  grading  has  been  a  natural  outgrowth  of  sell- 
ing on  the  basis  of  quality. 

SCORING 

In  the  last  few  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  butter 
and  other  dairy  products  were  first  placed  on  exhibition 
in  this  country  at  various  agricultural  fairs  and  at  the 
conventions  of  dairy-men's  associations.  These  were 
judged  and  given  a  numerical  score. 

140.  Score-card.  —  The  score-card  now  in  general 
use,  and  which  is  the  outgrowth  of  many  years  of  butter- 
judging,  is  itemized  as  follows : 

Flavor 45  points 

Body 25  points 

Color 15  points 

Salt 10  points 

Package 5  points 

Total 100  points 

If  the  score-card  were  to  be  revised,  probably  a  greater 
proportion  of  the  valuation  would  be  placed  on  flavor. 

In  the  first  few  years  of  grading,  there  was  not 
much  sympathy  in  the  general  trade  for  placing  a  score 
on  butter.  Possibly  the  main  reason  was  that  the  dealers 
did  not  feel  competent  to  grade  butter  in  this  way.  Never- 
theless, the  time  came  when  numerical  values  were  as- 
signed to  the  different  grades.  As  an  example,  the  follow- 
ing grades  of  the  New  York  Mercantile  Exchange  are 
given  with  their  valuations : 


MARKETING  191 

"Higher  scorinp:" 93  or  above 

"Extras".     ......  92 

"Firsts" 88  to  91 

"Seconds" 83  to  87 

"Thirds" 76  to  82 

Besides  these  grades  of  creamery  butter,  there  are  classifi- 
caxions  such  as  ''  renovated,"  "  ladles,"  ''  packing  stock," 
and  "  grease."  As  long  as  the  evolution  of  grading  finally 
has  been  to  place  butter  according  to  score  and  not  to 
group  it,  as  when  first  started,  the  student  should  learn 
how  many  points  should  be  taken  off  for  each  of  the  many 
defects.  Some  persons  have  better  senses  of  taste  and 
smell  than  others  and  naturally  are  better  judges;  never- 
theless, it  is  possible  to  train  the  person  with  only  average 
natural  ability  to  be  a  good  judge.  A  discussion  follows 
of  the  items  of  the  score-card  from  the  viewpoint  of  the 
student  who  is  learning  how  to  score. 

141.  Flavor  is  the  only  point  of  the  card  that  is  never 
given  a  full  score.  Butter  that  has  a  total  of  93,  or  a 
score  on  flavor  of  38  or  above,  is  considered  to  be  in  the 
perfect  class.  This  score  shows  that  the  flavor  is  fine 
with  a  creamy  aroma.  A  slight  storage  flavor  in  held 
butter  is  permitted.  ''Extras"  which  has  a  flavor 
score  of  37  when  otherwise  perfect  has  a  plain  clean 
flavor. 

If  the  flavor  is  only  slightly  off,  due  to  old  cream, 
poor  milk,  or  perhaps  to  absorbed  flavors,  such  as  barny 
or  cowy  odors,  the  score  should  be  about  35  or  36.  This 
would  be  a  high  ''  firsts."  If  it  is  rather  dirty,  or  shows 
a  distinct  old  cream  flavor,  it  will  score  in  the  low  '*  firsts  " 
or  in  the  ''  seconds."  If  it  is  very  strong,  or  bitter,  or 
musty,  or  stale,  or  if  it  seems  to  have  a  combination 
of  all  that  may  be  bad,  it  will  grade  in  the  "  thirds  "  or 
possibly  lower.     It  is  well  for  the  student  to  know  that 


192  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

on  the  market  butter  will  rarely  score  over  39  on  flavor 
which,  if  otherwise  perfect,  will  give  a  final  score  of  94, 
and  that  it  seldom  scores  less  than  27  on  flavor  which, 
if  not  criticized  on  the  other  items  of  the  score-card, 
would  give  a  total  score  of  82. 

142.  Body.  —  The  ideal  body  is  firm  and  waxy.  The 
average  market  is  not  nearly  so  critical  of  this  factor  as 
of  the  flavor.  The  body  may  be  slightly  greasy,  or  the 
moisture  may  not  be  properly  incorporated.  However, 
the  average  consumer  will  overlook  these  faults  and  other 
similar  ones  on  body.  If  the  butter  is  weak  and  greasy,  it 
should  be  cut  from  i  to  2  points.  If,  in  addition  to  these 
faults,  the  brine  is  milky  and  the  grain  short,  4  or  5  points 
should  be  taken  off. 

143.  Color.  —  The  color  of  butter  must  suit  the  trade 
and  it  must  be  uniform.  If  it  is  mottled  or  streaked,  the 
consumer  immediately  complains.  When  the  color  is 
only  a  little  variable,  it  might  pass  without  criticism. 
Small  streaks  or  mottles  deserve  a  cut  of  J  to  1  point. 
If  very  mottled,  3  to  5  points  should  be  taken  off.  The 
general  shade  of  color  is  not  usually  criticized  unless  it  is 
extremely  high  or  low.  When  grading  butter  for  a  special 
market,  less  latitude  can  be  granted  in  this  regard  than 
when  judging  at  an  exhibition,  where  the  call  of  many 
markets  may  be  represented. 

144.  Salt.  —  The  salt-content  of  butter  must  be  made 
to  satisfy  the  consumer;  therefore,  the  dealer  in  butter 
must  be  strict.  In  a  general  scoring,  the  product  may  pass 
as  perfect  if  it  has  high  or  low  saltiness.  However,  in  all 
cases,  to  score  perfect  the  salt  must  be  dissolved.  If  it 
is  not,  J  to  4  points  may  be  taken  off.  The  salt  should 
be  evenly  distributed ;  yet  this  is  not  so  important  as  it 
was  a  few  years  ago,  for  the  general  tendency  is  to  work 


MARKETING  193 

the  butter  more  thoroughly  and  thus  the  salt  is  uniformly 
incorporated. 

145.  Package.  —  The  package  must  suit  the  market, 
and  in  order  to  sell  to  the  best  advantage  it  should  have 
a  neat  appearance.  A  moldy  tub  or  a  discolored  box  is 
not  attractive.  The  top  of  the  butter  in  the  tub  or  box 
should  be  finished  neatly.  The  liner  in  either  of  these 
packages  should  be  folded  over  evenly.  Parchment 
paper  should  be  used  as  liners,  for  it  is  comparatively  free 
from  mold  and  objectionable  bacteria.  Also,  parchment 
is  tougher  than  other  paper.     The  top  circle  should  be 


^^  >v»v— > 

k4  i 

iJj 

Fig.  55.  —  The  first  three  tubs  are  properly  finished.     The  last  is 
mussy. 

placed  in  its  proper  position,  since  this  is  the  part  the 
buyer  sees.  Fig.  55  shows  the  comparison  of  neat  and 
mussy  tubs.  In  reading  from  left  to  right,  tub  No.  1 
has  the  liner  properly  folded  over  one-half  inch.  Tub 
No.  2  shows  the  top  of  the  butter  cut  off  neatly,  the  liner 
folded  over  in  the  proper  way,  and  the  cloth  circle  in  the 
correct  position  with  the  exception  of  that  part  which  is 
folded  back  to  show  the  butter.  Tub  No.  3  is  the  finished 
package  with  the  four  fasteners  in  the  proper  position. 
Tub  No.  4  has  been  carelessly  lined  and  the  butter  is 
smeary.  Fig.  56  shows  how  the  butter  may  be  cut 
from  the  tub.     All  of  the  smaller  packages,  such  as  the 


194 


THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 


one-  and  the  one-half-pound  prints,  should  be  carefull^ 


\\Tapped. 


Soiled    finger    marks 


on  the  package  are 
objectionable,  espe- 
cially on  one  that  goes 
to  the  consumer.  A 
perfect  score  is  given 
when  that  part  of  the 
package  which  comes 
in  contact  with  the 
butter  is  clean  even 
though  it  may  be 
somewhat  mussy  due 
to  shipping.  However, 
when  carelessness  is 
apparent,  the  score 
may  be  cut  |  to  2 
points.  When  extreme 
laxity  is  evident,  all  5  points  might  be  taken  off.  The  char- 
acter of  the  package  plays  an  important  part  in  the  selling 
properties  of  most  goods.    It  is  especially  true  of  butter. 


Fig.  56. 


Cutting  the  butter  w-ith  a  ^vire 
in  finishing  the  tub. 


EXCHANGES 

146.  History  and  development.  —  In  the  early  history 
of  the  butter  industry,  there  were  no  wholesale  trade 
organizations.  In  Xew  York  City  the  price  changed 
five  cents  at  a  time.  Every  few  days  some  of  the  lead- 
ing butter  merchants  would  talk  over  the  situation 
and  practically  decide  what  the  price  should  be  for  the 
next  few  days.  In  process  of  time  the  need  of  an  or- 
ganization was  felt.  These  trade  organizations  not  only 
promote  good  fellowship,  but  provide  an  avenue  for  bet- 
ter trading.      Regarding  these  organizations,  Potts  and 


MARKETING  195 

Meyer ^  write  :  ''In  order  to  facilitate  trading  between  the 
members  rules  and  regulations  have  been  adopted  which 
provide  (1)  for  the  establishment  of  classes  and  grades  of 
butter,  (2)  for  inspection  service  to  apply  these  grades, 
and  (3)  for  the  adjustment  of  disputes  in  trading  between 
members.  Through  the  officers  of  the  organization  in- 
formation is  obtained  for  the  members  regarding  the 
movement,  prices,  demand,  and  supply  of  butter  in  other 
markets  and  receipts  at  the  local  market.  .  .  .  They 
also  obtain  the  benefits  of  cooperative  action  in  matters 
which  are  of  mutual  interest,  such  as  state  and  city  legis- 
lation, transportation  and  terminal  facilities,  and  improve- 
ment of  produce  markets  and  marketing  facilities."  At 
present  these  exchanges  meet  daily. 

THE    PRICE 

147.  How  reported.  —  It  has  already  been  stated 
that  the  custom  before  the  organization  of  exchanges 
was  for  a  few  of  the  leading  merchants  to  meet  and  to  set 
the  prices.  These  prices  were  reported  to  the  public 
through  the  agricultural  papers  and  by  the  newspapers. 
It  is  asserted  that  Solon  Robinson  was  one  of  the  first 
reporters  of  the  produce  markets.  His  work  began  in 
1856.  It  is  thought  that  the  butter  market  was  reported 
at  about  the  same  time  by  Robinson  for  the  American 
Agriculturist,  and  by  Clarkson  Taber  for  the  New  York 
Tribune.  The  first  produce  paper  was  published  in  1858 
or  1859  by  Benjamin  Urner,  appearing  once  a  week. 
It  later  developed  into  what  is  now  The  Producers' 
Price-Current,  which  in  1882  became  a  daily  publication. 
The  various  trade  papers  have  no  small  part  in  determining 
1  Potts,  Roy  C,  and  Meyer,  H.  F.,  Marketing  Creamery 
Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bui.  456,  pp.  16-17,  1917. 


196  THE   BOOK  OF   BUTTER 

the  prices,  for  it  is  through  them  that  the  trade,  whether 
far  or  near,  learns  of  the  supply  and  demand.  The  follow- 
ing are  the  quotations  of  June  30,  1917,  in  The  Producers' 
Price-Current,  which  shows  in  what  form  the  public 
receives  them : 

Creamery,  higher  scoring  than  extras       .     .     .  37|  @  38| 

Creamery,  extras  (92  score) %  37| 

Creamery,  firsts  (88  to  91  score) 36     @  37 

Creamery,  seconds  (83  to  87  score)     ....  34|  @  35| 

Creamery,  thirds 33     @  34 

Creamery,  unsalted,  higher  than  extras  ...  39     @  39| 

Creamery,  unsalted,  extras 38     @  38| 

Creamery,  unsalted,  firsts 36§  @  37^ 

Creamery,  unsalted,  seconds 35     @  36 

State,  dairy,  tubs  finest 37     @  37^ 

State,  dairy,  good  to  prime .  35^  @  36| 

State,  dairy,  common  to  fair      .     .     .  .     .  33     @  35 

Renovated,  extras 36^  @ 

Renovated,  firsts .     .  35|  @  36 

Renovated,  lower  grades 33     @  35 

Imitation  creamery,  firsts 34^  @,  35| 

Ladles,  current  make,  firsts  .......  33|  @  34 

Ladles,  current  make,  seconds 32^  @  33 

Ladles,  current  make,  lower  grades     .     .     .     .  3H  @  32 

Packing  stock,  current  make,  Xo.  1    .     .     .     .  32^  @  33 
Packing  stock,  current  make.  No.  2    .     .     .     .  @  32 

Packing  stock,  current  make,  lower  grades  .     .  30     @  31^ 

148.  Determination  of  price.  —  When  the  exchanges 
were  first  organized,  among  other  committees  was  one 
that  met  daily  and  decided  on  the  prices.  In  the  course 
of  time  such  methods  were  considered  arbitrary  and  the 
Government  compelled  a  change.  The  method  used  in 
Xew  York  City,  and  which  is  similar  to  the  plan  of  the 
trade  in  Chicago  and  in  some  other  cities,  is  based  strictly 
on  the  sales  of  the  product.  In  the  exchange  rooms  there 
is  a  large  blackboard  on  which  the  auctioneer  places  the 
names  of  the  firms  who  have  butter  to  sell,  together  with 


MARKETING  197 

the  number  of  packages,  the  grade,  and  the  price.  Usually . 
there  are  no  bids  until  it  is  apparent  that  all  who  have 
butter  for  sale  and  who  wish  to  offer  it  in  this  way  have 
made  their  desires  known.  After  the  bids  are  all  in,  the 
reporter,  W.  C.  Taber,  a  son  of  Clarkson  Taber  mentioned 
above,  makes  note  of  these  transactions.  By  eleven  o'clock 
or  before  Taber  has  the  opportunity  to  go  to  the  street 
to  learn  of  the  sales  there,  after  obtaining  record  of  the 
transactions  on  the  floor.  At  noon  he  reports  exactly 
what  he  has  found  in  the  exchange  and  on  the  street. 


-  Wholesale  price  of  butter  in  the  United  States  from   1840 
to  1921 

It  is  interesting  to  see  what  the  prices  have  been  for 
as  many  years  as  they  are  obtainable.  Table  XXIII 
shows  a  list  of  the  prices  of  the  grade  now  known  as 
extras.  In  the  earlier  years  all  the  butter  was  made  on 
the  farms.  At  that  time  there  was  practically  no  grading; 
therefore,  the  figures  are  not  really  comparable.  The 
lowest  price  occurred  twice,  once  in  1843  and  again  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War.  The  highest  price  was 
reached  just  after  the  World  War. 


198  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

149.  Service  of  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture.  — 

Since  1918,  the  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture, 
through  its  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics,  has  main- 
tained a  news  service  which  has  been  a  great  aid  to  the 
dairy  industry.  This  Bureau  secures  data  of  particular 
importance  to  the  butter  trade  from  the  five  leading  mar- 
kets in  the  country:  New  York,  Chicago,  Boston,  Phila- 
delphia and  San  Francisco.  The  information  obtained  is 
receipts  in  the  market,  holdings  of  both  fresh  and  storage 
goods  in  the  wholesale  dealers'  stores,  cold  storage  hold- 
ings, and  imports  and  exports. 

These  movements  of  stocks  and  also  prices  are  reported 
in  daily  news  letters  from  each  city.  Weekly  reports  are 
issued  from  the  main  office  in  Washington  on  all  dairy 
products  and  on  margarine.  An  inspector  who  makes 
a  nominal  charge  is  maintained  on  each  of  the  above 
markets.  His  services  may  be  secured  by  either  the 
shipper  or  the  receiver. 

INSPECTION 

Most  of  the  trade  organizations  have  inspectors.  The 
purpose  of  this  officer  is  to  settle  disputes  regarding  the 
grade  of  certain  lots  of  butter.  This  has  helped  fully 
as  much  as  any  one  practice  in  the  proper  grading.  It 
has  also  been  a  source  of  information  in  not  only  placing 
butter  in  its  proper  grade,  but  in  actually  putting  a  score 
on  it.  The  inspector  is  subject  to  the  butter  committee, 
and,  in  case  there  is  dissatisfaction  with  his  decision,  an 
appeal  can  be  made  to  the  chairman.  The  committee 
then  inspects  the  goods. 

150.  Branding  inspected  butter.  —  To  show  that  a 
lot  of  butter  has  been  inspected,  the  New  York  ■Mercan- 
tile Exchange  provides  for  the  marketing  in  a  definite 


MARKETING 


199 


Table  XXIII  —  The  Average  Annual  Price  of  Butter, 
1840-1921 


Year 

Price 
Cents 

Year 

Price 
Cents 

Year 

Price 
Cents 

1840  1 

16.00 

1867 

32.75 

1894 

22.88 

1841 

16.25 

1868 

43.25 

1895 

21.37 

1842 

17.50 

1869 

41.25 

1896 

18.41 

1843 

14.75 

1870 

34.50 

1897 

18.95 

1844 

17.50 

1871 

32.25 

1898 

19.54 

1845 

16.00 

1872 

29.25 

1899 

21.26 

1846 

16.50 

1873 

29.75 

1900 

22.45 

1847 

18.25 

1874 

32.75 

1901 

21.63 

1848 

17.25 

1875 

30.25 

1902 

24.80 

1849 

17.75 

1876 

30.75 

1903 

23.48 

1850 

16.75 

1877 

27.25 

1904 

21.89 

1851 

16.75 

1878 

21.00 

1905 

24.89 

1852 

21.25 

1879 

29.25 

1906 

24.89 

1853 

21.25 

1880 

28.50 

1907 

28.30 

1854 

19.75 

1881 

28.25 

1908 

27.11 

1855 

23.00 

1882 

33.50 

1909 

29.20 

1856 

21.25 

1883 

28.50 

1910 

30.07 

1857 

23.00 

1884 

28.00 

1911 

26.65 

1858 

19.50 

1885 

23.50 

1912 

31.37 

1859 

21.50 

1886 

27.25 

1913 

32.2  3 

1860 

18.75 

1887 

24.50 

1914 

29.8 

1861 

14.75 

1888 

25.00 

1915 

29.8 

1862 

18.50 

1889 

23.75 

1916 

34.9 

1863 

23.25 

1890 

21.75 

1917 

42.7 

1864 

38.50 

1891 

24.00 

1918 

51.0 

1865 

39.25 

1892 

26.12  2 

1919 

61.0 

1866 

44.50 

1893 

27.01 

1920 
1921 

61.0 
43.3 

1  Wholesale  Prices,  Wages,  and  Transportation,  Senate  Reports, 
2d  Session,  52d  Cong.,  Vol.  3,  part  2,  pp.  73-74,  1892-93. 

2  Wholesale  Price  Series,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Bui. 
114,  1913. 

3  Pirtle,  T.  R.,  A  Handbook  of  Dairy  Statistics,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agri.,  p.  31,  1922. 


200  THE   BOOK  OF   BUTTER 

way.  Extras  are  stamped  with  a  circular  brand  two 
inches  in  diameter,  bearing  the  words  "  New  York  Mer- 
cantile Exchange,  Extras,"  the  date  of  inspection  and  the 
name  of  the  inspector.  Likewise  each  grade  is  marked  with 
its  own  specific  brand  of  a  certain  shape,  size,  and  wording. 

151.  Cost  of  inspection.  —  There  is  a  schedule  price 
for  inspection.  The  Chicago  Butter  and  Egg  Board  pro- 
vides for  a  charge  of  $.75  for  each  inspection  within  a 
certain  district.  In  another  district,  located  farther  from 
the  headquarters  of  the  Board,  a  charge  of  $2.00  is  made 
for  the  first,  with  the  addition  of  $.75  for  each  subsequent 
inspection  made  at  the  same  time  for  the  same  parties. 
In  districts  farther  still  from  the  headquarters  of  the 
Board,  thus  requiring  additional  time  of  the  inspector 
in  transit,  there  is  a  higher  cost.  The  New  York  Mer- 
cantile Exchange  provides  that  within  a  certain  district 
there  shall  be  a  charge  of  $.75  on  lots  not  exceeding  twenty- 
five  tubs,  one  invoice.  When  there  are  twenty-five  to 
fifty  tubs,  one  invoice,  the  cost  is  $1.00.  The  ratio  of 
the  charges  is  less  as  the  number  of  tubs  increases.  This 
exchange  stipulates  that  a  certain  number  of  tubs  shall 
be  examined,  depending  on  the  number  in  the  lot.  The 
Chicago  Butter  and  Egg  Board  leaves  this  to  the  judg- 
ment of  the  inspector.     (The  above  are  1918  prices.) 

152.  Other  duties  of  the  inspector.  —  Some  boards  of 
trade  give  the  inspector  power  to  weigh  butter.  Other 
trade  organizations  have  this  work  executed  by  a  differ- 
ent officer.  Some  exchanges  have  made  a  special  effort 
to  secure  as  inspector  a  man  of  experience  in  manu- 
facturing butter.  Such  a  person,  in  addition  to  settling 
disputes  as  to  grade  and  possibly  as  to  weight,  can  advise 
the  makers  of  the  poor  butter,  whose  product  he  examines, 
how  they  may  improve  their  goods. 


MARKETING  201 

WEIGHING   TUB    BUTTER   ON   THE   MARKET 

153.  Customary  methods.  —  The  various  markets  have 
different  methods  of  weighing  tub  butter.  Some  dealers 
weigh  each  tub  separately  and  thus  obtain  the  gross 
weight.  Then  they  strip  several  tubs  and  ascertain  the 
average  net  weight  of  the  butter.  The  difference  of  the 
gross  and  the  net  weight  of  these  tubs  (that  are  stripped) 
are  then  taken,  thus  giving  the  tare  of  the  tub.  The  final 
weight  of  the  butter  is  obtained  by  subtracting  the  average 
tare  from  the  gross  weight  of  each  tub.  Some  whole- 
sale merchants  accept  the  weights  marked  on  the  tubs 
by  the  creameries.  The  Chicago  Butter  and  Egg  Board  ^ 
states  that  not  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  tubs  shall  be 
weighed.  The  New  York  ^  dealers  in  determining  the 
tare  of  the  tub  usually  make  "  test  weights  "  as  follows: 

Weigh  3  tubs  out  of  12  or  under. 
Weigh  5  tubs  out  of  12  to  40. 
Weigh  10  tubs  out  of  40  to  100. 
Weigh  1.5  tubs  out  of  100  to  150. 
Weigh  20  to  25  tubs  out  of  a  carload. 

It  is  customary  on  most  markets  to  require  "  up  weight  "  ; 
also  it  is  not  often  that  a  butter-dealer  will  weigh  less 
than  full  pounds. 

154.  Amount  of  butter  in  tub.  —  For  several  years 
many  creameries  have  placed  a  certain  amount  of  butter 
in  each  tub,  such  as  sixty-two  or  sixty-three  pounds. 
Since  the  net  weight  amendment  to  the  Pure  Food  Law, 
more  creameries  have  made  a  practice  to  put  a  uniform 
amount  in  each  tub  and  then  have  stamped  the  net  weight 
on  the  tub  instead  of  marking  it  with  a  pencil.  The 
creameries  have  to  make  an  allowance  of  one-half  to  one 

^  Potts,  Roy  C,  and  Meyer,  H.  F.,  Marketing  Creamery 
Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bui.  456,  p.  7,  1917. 


202 


THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 


pound  for  actual  shrinkage  and  difference  in  weight  on 
each  sixty-pound  tub.  Fig.  58  shows  how  the  butter  may 
be  scraped  off  with  a  thin  wooden  strip  when  weighing  a 
certain  amount  in  each  tub. 


THE   MAIN   MARKETS    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES 

155.  Leading  markets,  -r-  The  largest  butter  market 
in  the  United  States  is  Chicago,  it  being  near  the  region 

of  the  greatest  production. 
A  large  part  of  the  butter 
of  the  Chicago  market  is 
shipped  to  other  points. 
New  York  City  has  next  to 
the  largest  market  in  this 
country,  and  more  butter  is 
consumed  there  than  in  any 
other  city.  The  Boston 
and  Philadelphia  prices,  as 
well  as  those  of  many  of  the 
smaller  cities  of  the  East, 
follow  the  New  York  prices 
fairly  closely.  The  other 
main  markets  of  America 
are  in  Cincinnati,  San  Fran- 
cisco, and  Portland. 

156.  Elgin  market.  —  At  one  time  the  Elgin  market 
of  Elgin,  Illinois,  located  in  the  greatest  butter  territory 
of  the  United  States,  was  the  chief.  In  fact  it  had 
such  a  reputation  that  little  creameries  in  many  states 
contrived  to  fit  the  word  ''  Elgin  "  into  their  corporate 
names.  The  Elgin  Board  meets  only  once  a  week  and 
only  a  few  packages  are  sold  each  time.  However,  be- 
cause of  its  past  reputation,  the  Elgin  quotations  are 


Fig,  58.  —  Weighing  a  uniform 
amount  of  butter  in  each  tub. 
Sixty-two  pounds  is  the  custom- 
ary weight. 


MARKETING  203 

still  used  by  many  creameries  in  the  central  states  as  a 
basis  for  payment.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  Elgin 
market  will  soon  cease  operations,  for  it  is  unnecessary 
because  of  the  nearness  of  the  Chicago  market,  and  in 
reality  it  represents  only  a  small  sale  of  butter. 

REQUIREMENTS    OF   DIFFERENT   MARKETS 

The  requirements  of  the  various  markets  differ  in  re- 
spect to  the  character  of  the  butter  and  the  type  of 
package. 

157.  Character  of  butter.  —  Philadelphia  demands  a 
dry-appearing  product.  A'ery  often  the  butter  that  goes 
to  the  Philadelphia  trade  has  been  badly  overworked  in 
order  that  the  moisture  might  be  thoroughly  incorporated. 
The  overworked  and  greasy  body  is  not  so  objectionable 
to  this  trade  as  a  little  unincorporated  water.  New  York 
and  Chicago  require  a  firm  body,  a  pleasant  clean  flavor, 
and  a  mild  salt.  The  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
Washington,  and  many  other  markets  are  not  so  strict 
on  any  of  these  factors.  The  southern  markets  in  gen- 
eral prefer  a  darker  color  and  more  salt  than  the  northern 
trade.  The  residents  of  many  rural  districts  are  fond  of 
butter  that  has  been  salted  very  high. 

158.  Wholesale  packages.  —  It  is  very  necessary  for 
the  butter-maker  to  cater  to  the  demands  of  the  trade 
in  the  style  and  type  of  package  in  which  he  puts  his 
product.  The  two  general  t^'pes  of  packages  used  for 
bulk  butter  are  the  tub  and  the  cube.  In  the  states  of 
the  Middle  West,  the  creameries  use  the  63-pound  ash 
tub.  In  New  England  the  spruce  tub  is  preferred  and 
the  call  is  for  butter  packed  in  10-,  20-,  30-,  50-,  or  60-pound 
packages.  On  the  Pacific  Coast,  the  creameries  employ 
the  cube  which  may  hold  63,  68,  or  approximately  80 


204  THE  ROOK  OF  BUTTER 

pounds.  The  New  Zealand  cube  holds  56  pounds. 
The  cube  costs  only  about  two-thirds  as  much  as  the  tub 
and  is  a  better  shape  for  two  reasons :  first,  there  is  less 
space  between  the  packages,  so  that  the  cubes  can  be 
placed  on  ships  and  in  warehouses  with  more  economy 
of  space ;  second,  the  butter  may  be  cut  in  prints  more 
satisfactorily  from  the  cubes.  When  the  material  is 
properly  planned,  the  box  or  cube  is  as  attractive  as  the 
tub.  The  tub  is  a  little  more  substantial  than  the  box ; 
nevertheless,  when  properly  made  the  box  is  sufficiently 
strong.  Neither  of  these  packages  is  returnable.  In 
the  early  days  of  shipping  butter,  the  large  firkins  which 
were  used  were  returned,  and  in  this  way  they  were  em- 
ployed over  and  over  again. 

159.  Retail  packages.  —  The  pound  or  one-half-pound 
brick  print  is  the  favorite  form  for  the  consumers  of  most 
markets.  The  New  England  preference  is  a  flat  print 
weighing  one  pound.  This  type  permits  of  some  adver- 
tising, as  the  butter-dealer,  creamery,  or  dairy  may 
stamp  an  appropriate  monogram  on  each  quarter  of  the 
print,  and  as  each  quarter  is  put  on  the  table  the  mono- 
gram appears  with  it.  This  is  not  possible  when  the  brick- 
shaped  print  is  used.  In  other  respects  the  brick  print 
is  better :  first,  there  is  not  so  much  surface  exposed 
to  the  warm  air ;  second,  it  is  easier  to  make.  The 
one-half-pound  and  the  pound  hotel  bars,  as  well  as 
the  two-pound  prints,  are  desirable  packages  in  some 
places.  A  five-pound  tin  is  the  package  in  which  the 
Navy  Department  of  the  United  States  has  most  of  its 
butter  packed.  There  are  a  few  companies  who  pack 
butter  in  similar  tins  when  exporting  it  to  warm  countries. 
Other  types  of  packages,  a  few  of  which  may  be  seen  in 
Fig.   59,  are   acceptable  on  some  markets  to  a  limited 


MARKETING 


205 


extent.  The  stone  jar,  when  properly  scalded  and  cooled, 
is  one  of  the  best  packages  so  far  as  the  keeping  of  the 
butter  is  concerned.  However,  it  is  heavy  and  easily 
broken,  and  because  of  being  rather  expensive  has  to  be 
returned.  It  is,  therefore,  practicable  only  for  a  dairy- 
man to  use  and  even  then  to  a  limited  extent. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  there  is  such  a  lack  of  uniformity 
of  retail  butter  packages.  Many  creameries  have  to 
keep  different  types  on  hand,  which  means  additional 
expense.  Also  laborers  in  the  creamery  cannot  work  so 
fast  because  of  changing  from  one  type  of  packing  to 
another. 

160.  Parcel  post.  —  Not  much  butter  is  being  shipped 
by  parcel  post,  and  probably  this  method  of  transportation 
will  never  be  an  important  factor  in  the  butter  industry. 


vf'SV 


Fig.  59. 


Types  of  packages  suitable  for  parcel  post.     All  are 
satisfactory  consumer's  packages. 


Many  different  t}T)es  of  packages  may  be  used.  Fig. 
59  show^s  satisfactory  styles.  As  long  as  the  brick  print 
is  the  most  desirable  consumer's  package,  it  would  prob- 
ably be  best  to  choose  one  of  the  two  print  packages. 


206  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

Both  are  made  of  corrugated  paper.  Inside  of  the  one 
on  the  left  of  the  figure  there  is  a  light  tin  box  in  which 
the  prints  may  be  placed  after  they  are  wrapped  in  parch- 
ment paper.  In  the  other  type,  which  is  shown  on  the 
right  of  the  figure,  the  prints  should  be  wrapped  in  parch- 
ment and  placed  in  a  carton  before  they  are  ready  to  put 
into  the  box.  These  boxes  are  made  in  various  sizes 
ranging  from  two  to  fifty  pounds  capacity.  However, 
the  larger  sizes  are  too  heavy  for  parcel  post.  The  usual 
quantities  of  butter  that  are  shipped  by  parcel  post  vary 
from  two  to  ten  pounds. 

SHIPPING   BUTTER 

161.  By  railroad.  —  In  the  butter  districts  of  this 
country,  a  regular  scheduled  refrigerator  dairy  freight 
service  is  operated  by  the  railroads  or  fast  refrigerator 
companies.  The  butter  is  collected  from  creameries 
along  the  line  in  iced  cars  by  "  pick  up  "  service.  At 
junction  points  entire  carloads  are  made  up.  The 
larger  creameries  usually  ship  a  carload  at  a  time.  In 
the  regions  where  not  much  butter  is  made,  the  express 
service  is  the  main  method  of  transportation.  It  is 
sometimes  advisable  to  express  to  a  junction  on  a  rail- 
road through  which  a  refrigerator  car  passes.  Arrange- 
ments may  be  made  with  the  refrigerator  car  company 
to  advance  the  local  express  charges,  to  be  collected  with 
the  freight  charges  at  the  destination.  This  method 
of  shipping  costs  less  than  the  through  express  and 
has  the  added  advantage  of  refrigeration  the  larger  part 
of  the  way.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  it  is  the  com- 
mon custom  for  the  butter-dealer  to  pay  the  transpor- 
tation and  to  deduct  the  amount  from  the  returns  for 
the  goods. 


MARKETING  207 

162.  By  water.  —  Water  transportation  is  slower  than 
by  the  railroad.  However,  it  is  cheaper.  In  the  past 
few  years  several  boats  have  been  fitted  with  refrigerator 
apparatus.  It  is  now  possible  to  ship  on  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  probably  in  a  short  time  boats  with  refrigerator  com- 
partments will  be  going  from  coast  to  coast  via  the  Panama 
Canal. 

SELLING   BUTTER 

163.  Methods  of  small  creameries.  —  Most  butter- 
dealers  send  an  agent  among  the  creameries  to  solicit 
business.  Many  such  merchants  have  held  their  cream- 
eries for  a  long  time  by  square  dealing.  Some  small 
creameries  occasionally  send  a  small  shipment  to  another 
merchant  on  the  same  market,  and  often  they  send  to 
other  markets  in  order  to  determine  whether  their  regular 
channel  is  the  best.  The  managers  of  the  large  creamer- 
ies often  go  on  the  market  to  ascertain  the  exact  condi- 
tion, rather  than  to  send  trial  shipments  to  various  places. 
It  is  very  desirable  that  the  creamery  manager  visit  the 
market  so  that  he  may  fully  understand  the  requirements 
of  the  trade  and  thus  be  able  to  sell  his  butter  for  the 
highest  possible  price. 

164.  Methods  of  large  creameries.  —  Most  of  the 
large  centralizer  creameries  have  their  own  marketing 
agencies.  This  gives  them  a  great  advantage  over  the 
smaller  ones,  for  they  learn  just  where  to  send  the  differ- 
ent grades  of  butter,  and  on  account  of  the  volume  of 
business  are  able  to  employ  very  efficient  salesmen. 
They  also  have  a  better  opportunity  to  satisfy  their  trade 
because  of  the  large  amount  and  the  uniformity  of  their 
goods,  than  the  average  butter-dealer  who  buys  his  product 
from  many  small  creameries.     Nevertheless,  it  should  be 


208  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

distinctly  understood  that  uniformly  high  quality  is  the 
most  important  consideration  in  the  successful  sale  of 
butter.  For  this  reason,  the  small  creameries  near  the 
producers  of  the  milk-fat  should  not  be  discouraged. 

165.  Cooperative  selling.  —  In  some  districts  cream- 
eries have  profited  by  organizing  themselves  in  a  coopera- 
tive sales  association.  A  good  illustration  is  the  Minne- 
sota Cooperative  Creamery  Association,  Inc.,  which  had 
its  birth  in  1921.  This  organization  has  a  general  man- 
ager in  St.  Paul  and  a  salesman  in  New  York  City,  as 
well  as  a  field  man  in  each  of  several  districts  where  the 
factories  are  located.  Most  of  the  butter  from  the  354 
creameries  now  participating  is  shipped  in  car  lots.  The 
creamerymen  receive  assistance  in  grading  cream  and  in 
other  details  in  manufacture  as  well  as  in  transportation 
and  selling  problems. 

distributors'  margins  ^ 

166.  Wholesalers'  margins.  —  *'  The  costs  of  market 
distribution  were  investigated  in  each  of  the  cities  visited, 
which  included  the  larger  and  more  important  whole- 
sale and  jobbing  markets  in  the  United  States.  It  was 
found  that  the  margins  taken  by  butter  distributors  in 
general  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  business  done ; 
that  is,  whether  wholesale  or  retail,  and  such  factors  as 
volume  of  business,  extent  of  charged  accounts,  competi- 
tion, and  general  conditions  of  the  market.  The  whole- 
sale receiver  sells  large  lots  usually  at  a  margin  of  from 
one-fourth  to  three-fourths  cent  a  pound  with  a  fair 
average  of  one-half  cent  per  pound.  The  jobber  who 
distributes  bulk  packages  or  prints,  employs  salesmen, 
maintains  delivery  equipment,  and  extends  credit  to  the 

1  Potts,  R.  C,  and  Meyer,  H.  F.,  Marketing  Creamery  Butter, 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bui.  456,  pp.  27-28,  1917. 


MARKETING 


209 


210  THE   BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

retailer,  usually  receives  from  li  to  2i  cents  per  pound 
gross  margin  for  rendering  this  service.  The  gross  mar- 
gin is  not  all  net  profit,  for  a  large  amount  of  capital  is 
required  to  conduct  a  wholesale  or  jobbing  business,  and 
the  expenses  are  considerable.  ..." 

167.  Retailer's  margins.  —  "  The  margins  taken  by 
the  retailer  show  wider  variations  than  those  for  other 
distributors.  Butter  frequently  is  handled  by  some 
stores  on  a  week-end  day  at  cost,  for  the  purpose  of  at- 
tracting customers  as  an  advertising  feature.  The  usual 
margin  taken  by  cash  stores  and  chain  stores  will  vary 
from  3  to  5  cents,  depending  upon  the  ruling  price  of 
butter.  The  retailer  with  a  small  butter  business,  who 
has  to  maintain  an  expensive  delivery  service  and  carry 
numerous  credit  accounts,  often  takes  a  margin  of  5  to  7 
cents  to  cover  costs  and  profit."  Fig.  60  shows  the 
butter  counter  of  a  large  retail  grocery  store.  There 
are  many  such  stores  in  the  large  cities. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
WHEY  BUTTER 

Whey  butter,  which  is  made  of  cream  separated  from 
the  whey  of  cheese,  is  manufactured  regularly  in  only  a 
few  cheese  factories.  Occasionally  the  whey  cream  is 
sold  to  centralizer  creameries.  At  one  time  a  company 
was  organized  in  northern  New  York,  that  bought  the 
whey  cream  from  several  cheese  factories  and  made  butter 
from  this  cream  only. 

168.  Fat  loss  in  whey.  —  As  early  as  1895,  Wing  ^ 
reported  that  in  many  cheese  factories,  a  large  amount 
of  milk-fat  was  being  practically  wasted  in  the  whey. 
He  calculated  that  if  all  the  whey  in  New  York  were 
skimmed,  there  would  be  a  saving  of  4,776,598  pounds  of 
butter  in  one  year,  which  at  twenty  cents  a  pound 
amounted  to  a  loss  of  fifty  cents  a  cow.  Most  of  this 
whey  was  from  Cheddar  cheese  factories.  It  tested 
about  .3  per  cent  fat.  In  1905  Farrington  ^  called  atten- 
tion to  the  large  loss  of  milk-fat  in  the  whey  of  Swiss 
cheese,  the  test  of  which  was  often  as  high  as  1  per  cent. 
The  average  fat-content  of  the  whey  of  Swiss  cheese  is 
about  .5  per  cent. 

1  Wing,  H.  H.,  Whey  Butter,  Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta., 
Bui.  85,  1895. 

2  Farrington,  E.  H.,  The  Manufacture  of  the  Whey  Butter  at 
Swiss  Cheese  Factories,  Univ.  of  Wis.,  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  132, 
p.  31,  1905. 

211 


212  THE   BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

169.  Cost  of  manufacture.  —  The  cost  of  making  whey 
butter  depends  largely  on  the  labor  problem.  Wing  ^ 
states:  ''  The  manufacture  of  butter  from  the  whey  will 
not  ordinarily  require  much  increased  labor.  The  whey 
can  be  run  through  the  separator  at  the  same  time  that 
the  latter  part  of  the  cheese-making  process  is  going  on  and 
the  churning  will  take  but  a  small  amount  of  time  and 
labor.  The  additional  items  of  expense  will  be  storage 
capacity  for  the  whey  and  the  separator."  Doane  ^ 
itemizes  the  annual  expense  of  making  6000  pounds  of 
whey  butter  as  follows : 

Repairs $25.00 

Ice 40.00 

Interest  on  investment 40.00 

Depreciation  at  10  per  cent     .     .     .  80.00 

Oil 5.00 

Salt 7.00 

Belts 9.00 

Butter  paper  for  pound  prints      .     .  9.00 

$215.00 

^' Coal,  1\  cents  per  pound  of  butter  made.  Labor, 
2\  cents  per  pound  of  butter  made."  The  total  cost  of 
manufacturing  butter  in  this  experimental  creamery 
was  a  little  over  7  cents  a  pound,  and  the  greatest  expense 
was  labor. 

Sammis  ^  shows  the  cost  of  making  whey  butter  in  the 
following  table : 

1  Wing,  H.  H.,  Whey  Butter,  Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta., 
Bui.  85,  1895. 

2  Doane,  C.  F.,  Whev  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  B.  A.  I., 
Cir.  161,  1910. 

3  Sammis,  J.  L.,  Making  Whey  Butter  at  Cheddar  Cheese 
Factories,  Agri.  E.xp.  Sta.  Univ.  Wis.,  Bui.  240,  1915. 


WHEY    BUTTER 


213 


Table     XXIV  —  Cost 

AND  Profit  i 

N  Skimming  W 

hey   at 

Large 

^ND  Small  Factories 

Factory  running  months 

12 

12 

12 

8 

6 

Milk  per  day,  lb.       .     . 

9,000 

4,500 

2,250 

2,250 

2,000 

Equipment,  total  cost  . 

$685 

$607 

$411 

$381 

$209 

Capacity  of  whey  sepa- 

rators        

5,000 

5,000 

3,500 

3,500 

1,200 

Cost,  new 

$500 

$500 

$350 

$350 

$200 

Whey  storage  tank,  size 

gal 

2,100 

1,000 

500 

500 

— 

Cost,  new 

$45 

$32 

$17 

$17 

— 

Whey  pump  or  steam  jet 

$25 

$10 

$4 

$4 

$4 

Piping  sundries    .     .     . 

$15 

$15 

$15 

$10 

$5 

Building  alterations 

$100 

$59 

$25 

— 

— 

Annual  charges,  total    . 

$578 

$328 

$272 

$200 

$141 

Depreciation,  10%     . 

$69 

$60 

$41 

$38 

$21 

Interest,  5%    .     .     .     . 

$34 

$30 

$21 

$19 

$10 

Coal,    gasoline,    elec- 

tricity      .... 

$100 

$50 

$25 

$18 

$15 

Oil,  insurance,  etc.     . 

$15 

$8 

$5 

$5 

$5 

Labor       

$360 

$180 

$180 

$120 

$90 

Gross  income : 

Milk   handled   annu- 

ally, lb 

3,285« 

1,642» 

821,250 

547,500 

365,000 

Fat     sold     in     whey 

cream,  lb.      ... 

8,210 

4,106 

2,053 

1,370 

913 

Value  at  20  ^  a  lb.     . 

$1,642 

821 

411 

274 

183 

Deduct  expense    .     .     . 

578 

328 

272 

200 

141 

Net  proceeds,  total  . 

$1,064 

$493 

$139 

$74 

$42 

Per  pound  of  fat  sep- 

arated, cts.    . 

12.9 

12.0 

6.8 

5.4 

4.6 

Per  100  pounds  milk. 

cts.       ..... 

3.2 

3.0 

1.7 

1.3 

1.1 

"  Last  three  figures  omitted. 

Sammis  places  the  cost  of  making  butter  from  whey  at 
approximately  the  same  price  that  Doane  ^  named.  He 
also  calculates  that  the  labor  cost  is  the  greatest  item. 

1  Doane,  C.  F.,  Whey  Butter,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  B.  A.  I., 
Cir.  161,  1910. 


214  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

In  many  factories  this  expense  is  not  so  high,  for  a  certain 
number  of  men  must  be  employed  regardless  of  whether 
whey  butter  is  produced. 

Arrangement  is  usually  made  whereby  the  farmer  re- 
ceives a  certain  proportion  of  the  profits  on  the  whey 
butter.  This  more  than  reimburses  him  for  the  milk-fat 
taken  from  the  whey,  thus  causing  the  feeding  value  of 
the  product  to  be  somewhat  less.  Quoting  Doane  :  "In 
a  factory  receiving  a  maximum  flow  of  milk  of  10,000  or 
more  pounds  a  day  some  profit  should  be  made  after 
giving  one-half  of  the  gross  returns  to  the  farmer." 

170.  Manufacture  of  whey  butter.  —  The  first  step  in 
the  making  of  whey  butter  is  in  the  care  of  the  milk. 
Generally  it  is  considered  that  separation  is  the  first 
part  of  the  process. 

Separation.  —  The  whey  should  be  separated  as  quickly 
as  possible  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  cheese-vat.  It 
should  be  passed  through  a  special  whey  separator  so 
that  the  cream  will  test  at  least  50  per  cent  fat.  This 
separator  differs  from  the  milk  machine  in  having  a  larger 
opening  for  the  skimmed  product  to  flow  from  the  bowl. 
In  case  of  necessity,  the  milk  separator  may  be  employed  ; 
however,  the  cream  must  be  separated  the  second  time  to 
be  sufficiently  rich  in  milk-fat  for  churning.  It  is  wise  to 
strain  out  the  small  pieces  of  curd  as  the  whey  runs  into 
the  separator.     This  prevents  the  clogging  of  the  bowl. 

Care  and  ripening  of  cream.  —  As  quickly  as  the  whey 
is  separated,  it  should  be  pasteurized  at  145°  F.  for  thirty 
minutes  and  then  cooled  to  a  good  holding  temperature 
or  to  the  ripening  temperature.  If  the  factory  is  small, 
the  cream  should  probably  be  churned  three  or  four 
times  each  week.  A  good  plan  is  as  follows :  After  sep- 
aration Monday  morning,  pasteurize  the  cream  and  cool 


WHEY   BUTTER  215 

it  to  50°  F.  and  hold  it  at  that  temperature  until  Tuesday 
morning.  After  separating  the  whey  on  Tuesday  morning, 
pasteurize  it  and  mix  it  with  the  Monday  batch.  The 
next  step  is  to  add  the  starter.  Some  manufacturers 
like  to  add  sufficient  artificial  starter  to  standardize  the 
cream  to  a  fat-content  of  about  30  per  cent.  Other 
butter-makers  prefer  to  dilute  the  cream  with  skimmed- 
milk  so  that  it  tests  about  40  per  cent  fat.  Then  they 
add  about  a  15  per  cent  inoculation  of  starter.  Still 
other  makers  do  not  use  any  starter.  They  dilute  the 
rich  whey  cream  w^ith  whole  milk  or  skimmed-milk  and 
churn  the  sweet  cream.  Butter  made  from  the  cream 
that  is  sweet  or  that  contains  very  low  acidity  has  better 
keeping  properties  than  the  very  sour  cream  goods.  If 
thin  cream  is  desired,  it  should  be  diluted  before  pasteur- 
ization, for  it  is  not  wise  to  add  raw  milk  to  cream  in 
which  the  bacteria  have  been  killed. 

One  of  the  sources  of  difficulty  in  securing  good  whey 
cream  is  the  drippings  of  the  press.  Usually  the  whey 
that  flows  from  the  cheese  press  will  test  about  8  per  cent 
milk-fat.  If  it  is  not  saved,  there  is  a  large  waste.  How- 
ever, these  drippings  are  usually  about  a  day  old  before 
they  can  be  utilized  and  often  develop  a  strong  and  old 
flavor.     Very  often  they  should  not  be  used  at  all. 

Churning. — The  cream  should  be  churned,  washed,  salted, 
worked,  and  packed  in  the  ordinary  way.  Care  should  be 
observed  in  the  employment  of  as  low  temperatures  as 
possible,  for  the  tendency  of  whey  fat  is  to  be  greasy. 

Marketing.  —  Most  whey  butter  is  sold  in  the  locality 
of  the  factory.  Since  it  does  not  keep  quite  so  well  as 
creamery  or  dairy  butter,  it  is  usually  not  shipped  to 
distant  markets.  If  care  is  observed  in  manufacturing 
whey  butter,  it  will  pass  on  the  average  market  as  firsts. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

RENOVATED   AND   LADLED   BUTTER 

The  purpose  of  renovating  or  re-making  butter,  and 
of  ladling  or  re-working  it,  is  to  make  the  goods  more 
uniform  in  every  particular  and  to  improve  the  quality 
ds  much  as  possible. 

171.  Source  of  raw  material.  —  Dairy  butter  is  largely 
the  raw  material  from  which  renovated  and  ladled  prod- 
ucts are  made.  Occasionally  poor  creamery  butter  is 
bought  for  this  purpose.  This  dairy  butter  is  usually 
obtained  from  country  stores  where  the  farmer  has 
traded  it  in  exchange  for  groceries.  The  practice  of  the 
grocers  is  to  sell  at  retail  the  better  grades,  and  to  ship 
the  poorer  ones  in  salt  or  sugar  barrels  to  a  renovating  or  a 
ladling  factory.  This  product  is  often  transported  long 
distances,  sometimes  over  two  thousand  miles. 

172.  Renovating  and  ladling  plants.  —  The  num})er  of 
renovating  plants  in  the  United  States  has  decreased  from 
eighty-one  in  1903  to  eleven  in  1920.  The  largest  output 
was  in  1907  and  the  smallest  in  1921.  (See  Table  XLV.) 
It  is  easier  and  more  profitable  now  for  the  farmers  to 
market  their  cream  to  a  creamery,  than  to  make  butter 
and  sell  it  at  a  lower  price  than  can  be  obtained  for  the 
milk-fat  in  the  cream.  The  advent  of  the  modern  hand 
cream  separator  has  been  the  main  factor  in  the  decrease 
in  the  amount  of  renovated  and  ladled  butter. 

216 


RENOVATED    AND   LADLED    BUTTER  217 

173.  Over-run.  —  The  quantity  of  the  finished  product 
is  usually  much  more  than  the  amount  of  the  raw  material, 
for  most  dairy  butter  is  low  in  moisture.  These  remade 
butters  contain  high  percentages  of  moisture  and  salt. 
In  fact  the  profit  is  largely  secured  in  the  increase  of  the 
final  product  over  the  original  stock. 

174.  Method  of  manufacturing  renovated  butter.  — 
The  renovated  product  passes  through  a  melting  process ; 
whereas  the  ladled  butter  is  merely  softened  by  warmth 
so  that  it  may  be  easily  reworked.  In  general,  renovated 
butter  is  made  in  the  following  way ;  the  description  is 
taken  from  Shaw  and  Norton/  and  covers  the  process 
used  in  a  factory  in  the  Central  West :  ''  The  packing 
stock  is  taken  to  the  third  floor,  and  after  removal  from 
the  containers  is  thrown  into  a  large  melting  vat  in  the 
bottom  of  which  are  steam  coils.  One  end  of  the  vat  is 
screened  off,  and  in  this  screened-off  section  is  a  pump 
constantly  in  operation  during  the  melting  process,  con- 
veying the  melted  mixture  to  a  battery  of  settling  tanks 
each  having  a  capacity  of  500  pounds.  The  settling 
tanks  are  jacketed,  the  space  between  the  jacket  walls 
being  filled  with  water  which  is  heated  with  steam  to 
maintain  the  proper  temperature  during  the  process  of 
settling,  which  lasts  from  6  to  10  hours.  The  clear  butter 
oil  is  run  from  the  settling  tanks  to  the  blowing  tanks  on 
the  floor  below.  The  blowing  tanks  also  are  jacketed, 
and  have  a  capacity  of  400  pounds  of  butter  oil.  The 
blowing  is  conducted  at  a  temperature  of  110°  to  120°  F., 
about  15  hours  being  usually  required  for  an  average 
grade  of  packing  stock.     The  air  is  washed  and  heated 

1  Shaw,  Roscoe  H.,  and  Norton,  Raymond  P.,  Blowing  Ren- 
ovated Butter  Oil  at  Pasteurizing  Temperature,  Jour,  of  Dairy 
Sci.,  Vol.  1,  No.  2,  p.  28,  1917. 


218  THE   BOOK   OF  BITTER 

before  coming  into  contact  with  the  butter  oil.  The 
blown  butter  oil  is  passed  over  a  continuous  pasteurizer 
held  at  160°  F.,  and  is  then  ready  to  be  emulsified.  The 
emulsion  is  made  in  a  circular  tank  provided  with  paddles 
or  dasher  revolving  in  opposite  directions.  The  emulsion 
drops  to  the  floor  below  into  the  crystallizing  vat,  and  the 
crystals  removed  to  the  ripening  room  in  trucks,  each  truck 
holding  the  contents  of  one  blower.  After  ripening,  the 
crystals  are  worked,  salt  added,  and  the  finished  product 
packed  in  cartons  or  tubs  as  may  be  demanded  by  the 
trade."  In  some  plants,  the  emulsion  consists  of  a 
mixture  of  the  purified  fat  or  butter  oil  and  starter.  It  is, 
therefore,  practically  a  cream.  After  the  emulsion  passes 
through  the  ripening  stage,  it  is  churned  in  the  ordinary 
way.  Renovated  butter  must  be  packed  and  branded  in 
a  definite  manner  as  prescribed  by  law  (see  Chapter  XVI). 
All  butter-renovating  concerns  do  not  pasteurize  the 
raw  material.  However,  considerable  satisfaction  is  now 
felt  by  food  experts  because  the  tendency  of  many  com- 
panies is  toward  pasteurization.  The  fear  that  the  raw 
packing  stock  may  contain  disease  micro-organisms  is  well 
grounded,  for  much  of  this  butter  is  very  carelessly 
handled. 

175.  Method  of  manufacturing  ladled  butter.  —  This 
product  receives  its  name  from  the  method  of  reworking. 
It  is  made  of  the  same  kind  of  raw  material  from  which 
renovated  butter  is  manufactured.  In  this  process  the 
old  dairy  butter  is  graded  largely  according  to  shade  of 
color,  although  in  many  cases  the  condition  of  the 
body  is  a  deciding  factor.  After  the  butter  is  graded, 
it  is  placed  in  a  room  at  such  a  temperature  that  it  will 
become  soft  and  thus  be  in  a  good  condition  for  reworking. 
Salt  and  water  are  then  added  and,  if  necessary,  color  is 


RENOVATED    AND   LADLED   BUTTER  219 

put  in  the  mixture.  The  working  process  is  then  con- 
ducted by  the  use  of  ladles.  The  final  step  is  the  packing. 
Usually  it  is  placed  on  the  market  in  tubs,  and  most  of  it 
is  sold  for  cooking  purposes.  It  should  be  noted  that  this 
product  cannot  be  pasteurized,  so  that  it  is  probably 
fortunate  that  most  of  the  ladled  butter  is  used  as  a 
culinary  product. 


CHAPTER   XV 
MARGARINE 

The  material  long  sold  as  oleomargarine  met  a  deter- 
mined and  probably  deserved  opposition,  particularly 
as  it  was  marketed  in  imitation  and  semblance  of  butter. 
In  its  present  form  and  under  the  conditions  of  its  sale, 
it  has  now  become  a  recognized  product  in  the  market 
and  may  be  here  considered. 

176.  History.  —  ^Margarine  was  first  made  by  ]\Iege- 
^Nlouries,  a  French  chemist,  in  1870.  Shortly  before  the 
Franco-German  war.  Emperor  Napoleon  HI  requested 
Mege-Mouries  to  investigate  the  problem  of  obtaining 
a  substitute  for  butter  that  would  cost  less.  The  Paris 
Health  Council  passed  a  regulation  on  April  12,  1872, 
sanctioning  the  new  product  as  a  substitute  for  butter.  It 
also  made  the  stipulation  that  this  substitute  was  not 
to  be  sold  under  the  name  of  butter.  It  was  called 
margarine-mouries.  The  process  of  Mege-Mouries  con- 
sisted in  separating  a  portion  of  stearin  from  the  best 
kidney  fat,  which  is  converted  into  a  fat  possessing  char- 
acteristics similar  to  butter.  Thus  this  method  rendered 
the  use  of  animal  body  fat  possible  as  a  butter  substitute. 
Mouries  melted  the  fat  in  a  steam  vat  at  a  temperature  of 
113°  F.  He  purified  it  by  settling  and  graining  and  then 
cut  it  in  squares,  tied  these  in  small  cloths,  and  pressed 
them.     This  gave  40  to  50  per  cent  stearin  and  50  to 

220 


MARGARINE  221 

60  per  cent  fluid  oleo  oil.  From  the  oleo  oil  was  made 
oleomargarine. 

177.  Method  of  making  and  composition.  —  Wright  ^ 
states :  ''In  the  best  factories  margarine  is  still  made 
from  beef  fat  which  is  finely  divided  by  a  mincing  machine 
or  '  hasher,'  passed  into  large  water-jacketed  tanks,  and 
heated  to  a  maximum  temperature  of  102°  F.  Most  of 
the  impurities  are  allowed  to  settle  with  the  water,  and 
the  clear  yellow  melted  fat,  having  been  freed  from  float- 
ing impurities  by  skimming,  is  run  off  into  wooden  vessels, 
and  the  stearin  used  for  candle  making  then  crystallizes 
out.  The  oleomargarine  at  this  stage  is  quite  tasteless, 
and  has  therefore  to  be  churned  up  with  milk,  colored 
with  annatto,  and  rolled  with  ice.  Before  churning  the 
oleo  is  melted  and  then,  w^hen  well  emulsified  by  running 
the  churn  at  a  high  speed,  the  other  ingredients  are 
added. 

"  The  following  is  an  analysis  of  commercial  margarine. 

Water 12.0  per  cent 

Stearin 38.5  per  cent 

Olein 25.0  per  cent 

Palmitin 18.3  per  cent 

Butyrin,  eaproin 0.3  per  cent 

Casein 0.7  per  cent 

Salts 5.2  per  cent 

100.0  per  cent." 

Wilder  ^  gives  the  formulas  and  cost  of  different  grades 
of  margarine  in  the  following  tables, — Tables  XXV  to 
XXVII,  on  page  222. 

1  Wright,  R.  Patrick,  Margarine,  The  Standard  Cyclopedia 
of  Modern  Agri.  and  Rural  Econ.,  p.  193,  1910. 

2  Wilder,  F.  W.,  Butterine  and  Process  Butter,  The  Modern 
Packing  House,  p.  442,  1905. 


222 


THE    BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


Table    XXV  —  Formula    for    and    Cost    of    High    Grade 

BUTTERINE 


Materials  and  Quantities 

Cost  per  Pound 

Total  Cost 

525  pounds  No.  1  oleo  oil 

$0.0875 

$45.19 

475  pounds  No.  1  neutral  lard   . 

0.08125 

38.57 

50  gallons  30  per  cent  cream    . 

.42 

30.24 

300  pounds  creamery  butter 

.28 

84.00 

Labor  and  package 

.01 

15.00 

Salt  and  color 

1.00 

Total 

214.00 

''  This  formula  will  yield   1500  pounds   of   butterine, 
therefore  the  cost  per  pound  is  $0.1426. 


Table    XXVI 


Formula  for  and  Cost  of  Medium  Grade 
Butterine 


Materials  and  Quantities 

Cost  per  Pound 

Total  Cost 

525  pounds  No.  1  oleo  oil 
475  pounds  No.  1  neutral  lard   . 
40  gallons  30  per  cent  cream    . 

Labor  and  package 

Salt  and  color 

Total 

$0.0875 
0.08125 
.42 
.01 

$45.19 

38.57 

40.32 

12.00 

1.00 

137.08 

"This   formula   would   yield    1200   pounds   butterine, 
therefore  the  cost  is  SO.  1142  per  pound. 

Table  XXVII  —  Formula   for  and   Cost  of  Low  Grade 
Butterine 


Materials  and  Quantities 

Cost  per  Pound 

Total  Cost 

350  pounds  No.  2  oleo  oil      .     . 

$0.08  per  lb. 

$28.00 

250  pounds  cottonseed  oil      .     . 

.04  per  lb. 

10.00 

450  pounds  neutral  lard    . 

.08125  per  lb. 

36.54 

60  gallons  3|  per  cent  milk 

.12  per  gal. 

7.20 

Labor  and  package 

— 

12.00 

Salt  and  color 

— 

1.00 

Total 

— 

94.74 

MARGARINE  223 

''  This  formula  will  yield  1200  pounds  butterine,  there- 
fore the  cost  to  produce  and  pack  for  shipping  will 
be  $0.0789  per  pound." 

The  composition  of  the  product  of  six  large  manu- 
facturing concerns  selling  oleomargarine  in  Minnesota  is 
given  by  Farrell  ^  as  follows : 

"  1.  Oleo  oil  40  %,  lard  28  %,  cottonseed  oil  15  %, 
salt  3  %,  moisture  14  %  =  100  %. 

"  2.  Cottonseed  oil  46  %,  oleo  oil  37  %,  salt  4  %, 
moisture  13  %  =  100  %. 

''  3.  Oleo  oil  41  %,  cottonseed  oil  38%,  lard  4  %,  salt 
4  %,  moisture  13  %  =  100  %. 

"  4.  Oleo  oil  48  %,  cottonseed  oil  30  %,  lard  6  %,  salt 
4  %,  moisture  12  %  =  100  %. 

''5.  Oleo  oil  22%,  cottonseed  oil  49  %),  lard  17%, 
salt  2  %,  milk  solids  2  %,  moisture  8  %  =  100  %. 

^'  6.  Oleo  oil  35  %,  cottonseed  oil  20  %,  lard  30  %, 
salt  3  %,  moisture  12  %  =  100  %." 

The  fat  of  the  first  margarine  was  derived  entirely  from 
animals.  The  above  analyses  show  that  at  the  present 
time  a  large  percentage  of  the  oil  is  of  vegetable  origin. 
This  product  should,  therefore,  no  longer  be  termed  "  oleo- 
margarine," for  oleo  oil  is  now  only  a  small  part  of  the 
ingredients  used  in  making  the  butter  substitute. 

178.  Legal  control.  —  Attention  has  been  called  to  the 
stipulation  made  by  the  Paris  Health  Council,  i.e.  that 
this  substitute  was  not  to  be  sold  under  the  name  of  butter. 
Wright  recognizes  the  place  of  margarine  as  a  food  ;  how- 
ever, he  also  points  to  the  possibility  of  adulteration.  The 
matter   is   summed   up   by   Fleischmann,^  who   asserts: 

1  Farrell,  J.  J.,  The  Storm  Breaks,  Butter,  Cheese,  and  Egg 
Jour.,  Mar.  1,  1916. 

2  Fleischmann,  W.,  Margarine,  The  Book  of  the  Dairy,  p.  319. 


224  THE   BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

"  It  goes  without  saying,  that  attempts  have  been  made, 
in  order  to  promote  its  sale,  to  make  margarine  as  attrac- 
tive as  possible.  There  is  no  reason,  however,  on  this 
account,  for  rendering  the  new  fat  similar  in  external 
appearance  to  butter,  or  for  bringing  it  on  the  market  in 
a  similar  form  and  packed  in  the  same  way  as  butter.  The 
great  resemblance  of  the  prepared  animal  fats  to  butter 
has  always  this  disad\antage,  that  it  opens  the  way  to 
fraudulent  practices,  and  has  thus  a  tendency  to  destroy 
the  honest  character  of  the  sale.  The  possibility  of  fraud 
was  formerly  increased  by  the  universal  practice  of  calling 
margarine  by  the  name  of  butterine ;  that  is,  by  a  title 
which  was  only  justified  by  the  appearance  of  the  mar- 
garine, but  which  was  otherwise  strained  on  account  of  the 
fact  that  not  only  was  the  chemical  behavior  of  the  mar- 
garine, but  also  its  mechanical  texture  and  fundamental 
condition,  different  from  that  of  butter." 

The  laws  controlling  the  manufacture  and  sale  of 
margarine,  therefore,  have  been  very  stringent.  The 
Senate  and  Hou§e  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States 
of  America  ^  enacted  certain  laws  in  relation  to  this  product 
on  August  2,  1886,  and  amended  them  on  May  9,  1902. 
A  certain  tax  was  placed  on  the  manufacturer,  wholesale 
and  retail  dealers.  A  tax  of  ten  cents  a  pound  was  put 
on  margarine  that  was  colored  artificially  and  of  a  quarter 
of  a  cent  a  pound  on  uncolored  margarine.  Provision 
was  made  for  the  manufacturer  to  pack  the  margarine 
in  firkins,  tubs  or  other  wooden  packages,  each  containing 
not  less  than  ten  pounds,  and  marked,  stamped,  and 
branded  as  the  Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenue  pre- 
scribed, with  the  approval  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

^  U.  S.  Internal  Revenue  Regulations  No.  9.  Revised  July^ 
1907. 


MARGARINE  225 

It  was  also  stated  that  all  sales  made  by  manufacturers 
and  wholesale  dealers  must  be  in  the  original  stamped 
package.  It  was  stipulated  that  the  retail  dealer  must 
sell  only  from  original  stamped  packages,  in  quantities 
not  to  exceed  ten  pounds;  that  when  sold  by  him,  it 
must  be  packed  in  suitable  wooden  or  paper  packages 
which  must  be  marked  and  branded  as  prescribed  by  the 
Commissioner  of  Internal  Revenues,  with  the  approval  of 
the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 

Since  the  enactment  of  this  law,  the  manufacturers  of 
margarine  have  used  successfully  certain  ingredients  to 
give  the  desired  color  without  the  use  of  artificial  matter. 
Thus  this  butter  substitute,  or  perhaps  more  properly 
imitation  butter,  has  gone  on  the  market  sufficiently  high 
in  color  to  deceive  the  average  purchaser,  at  a  tax  of  one 
quarter  of  a  cent  instead  of  ten  cents  a  pound. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  the  high  tax  is  unreasonable. 
However,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  spirit  and  pur- 
pose of  this  law  was  to  permit  the  uncolored  margarine, 
which  is  just  as  nutritious  as  that  product  with  a  higher 
color,  to  pass  with  a  tax  only  sufficient  to  execute  the  law. 
The  margarine  trade  has  been  able  to  sell  its  product  to  bet- 
ter advantage,  when  in  such  form  as  to  deceive  the  public. 
Because  of  this  deception,  which  is  apparent  from  the 
following  quotation,  a  bill  was  offered  before  Congress 
by  Haugen  ^  which  it  was  hoped  would  prevent  the  existing 
unscrupulous  sale  of  margarine.  The  following  is  a  state- 
ment by  Haugen  when  introducing  the  bill  that  has  sup- 
port of  the  National  Dairy  Union  :  ''  The  fraudulent  sale 
of  oleo  at  the  time  the  Government  Bill  was  under  con- 
sideration in  1899,  disclosing  the  fact  that  manufacturers  of 

1  Haugen,  Tlie  Dairyman's  Position,  N.  Y.  Prod.  Rev.  and 
Amer.  Cry.,  Apr.  12,  191G. 
Q 


226  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

oleo  had  entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  break  down  the  state 
laws  and  had  resorted  to  dishonorable  methods  in  forcing 
their  counterfeit  upon  the  public  by  avoiding  and  dis- 
obeying the  laws  of  the  land  to  the  extent  of  5,492  dealers 
selling  62,825,582  pounds  of  oleo  out  of  a  total  product  of 
83,130,474  pounds  for  the  year,  contrary  to  the  laws  of 
thirty-one  states.  The  manufacturers  went  so  far  as  to 
encourage  and  urge  dealers  to  violate  the  laws  of  the  states, 
and  provided  for  a  defense  fund  for  the  employment  of  the 
best  legal  counsel  obtainable  in  defending  illicit  sales 
whenever  prosecution  was  instituted.  This  led  to  the 
passage  of  the  present  law.  The  object  of  the  proponents 
of  the  present  law  was,  first,  to  bring  oleo  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  Government  by  imposing  a 
nominal  tax  upon  the  article,  and  second,  to  remove  the 
incentive  to  defraud  by  taxing  the  coloring  of  the  oleo, 
causing  it  to  look  like  butter,  or  the  counterfeit  at  the  rate 
of  ten  cents  per  pound,  which  was  then  the  difference  in 
the  cost  of  butter  and  oleo. 

"  The  Secretary  reports  that  the  Government  has  been 
defrauded;  through  artificially  colored  oleo  being  sold  under 
tax-paid  stamps  at  one-quarter  of  one  cent  per  pound 
instead  of  at  the  rate  of  ten  cents  due  on  such  product  by 
four  manufacturers,  the  enormous  sum  of  $17,692,410.47 
since  the  inception  of  the  present  law.  By  another  manu- 
facturer, $1,503,205.30  in  six  years  period.  The  five 
above,  in  the  aggregate  $19,195,613.77  stamp  taxes, 
exclusive  of  special  taxes  of  wholesale  and  retail  dealers 
incurred." 

179.  Margarine  test.  —  It  is  not  always  possible  to 
detect  margarine  without  the  application  of  a  test.  A  con- 
venient household  test  is  that  of  holding  a  small  quantity 
in  a  spoon  over  a  flame  or  fire.     If  when  heated  the  fat  does 


MARGARINE  227 

not  foam  and  boil  over,  it  is  margarine  or  at  least  it  is 
not  butter,  for  the  latter  effervesces  and  foams. 

180.  Butter  and  margarine.  —  Comparing  margarine 
and  butter  Wright  ^  states,  "  Compared  with  butter,  the 
chief  differences  in  composition  are  the  very  low  percent- 
age of  volatile  fatty  acids,  the  high  percentage  of  insoluble 
fatty  acids  and  the  high  molecular  weight.  There  are 
also  other  practical  differences  in  flavor,  digestibility, 
etc.  These  make  margarine  inferior  to  butter  in  value, 
but  as  the  price  is  also  lower,  good  margarine  serves  a  very 
useful  purpose  when  sold  under  its  proper  name  and  not 
used  for  the  purposes  of  adulteration."  Margarine  con- 
tains scarcely  any  of  the  growth-promoting  substances 
w^hich  are  abundant  in  butter.     (See  Chapter  11.) 

Dairy-men  have  no  objection  to  the  sale  and  consumption 
of  margarine,  as  margarine.  If  the  consumer  wishes  to 
pay  as  much  or  more  for  it  than  for  butter,  the  dairy 
industry  has  no  cause  for  complaint.  However,  it  does 
object  strenuously  to  the  sale  of  margarine  for  butter. 

^  Wright,  R.  Patrink,  Margarine,  The  Standard  Cyclopedia 
of  Modern  Agri.  and  Rural  Econ.,  Vol.  8,  p.  193,  1911. 


CHAPTER   XVI 
DEFINITION  OF   TERMS 

Butter  has  become  such  a  staple  product  in  the  market 
and  is  presented  in  so  many  forms,  and  the  processes  of 
manufacture  have  become  so  technical,  that  a  special 
terminology  has  arisen.  This  subject  may  now  be  con- 
sidered. 

181.  Butter.  —  "  Butter  is  the  clean,  non-rancid  prod- 
uct made  by  gathering  in  any  manner  the  fat  of  fresh  or 
ripened  milk  or  cream  into  a  mass,  which  also  contains 
a  small  portion  of  the  other  milk  constituents,  with  or 
without  salt,  and  contains  not  less  than  eighty-two  and 
five  tenths  (82.5)  per  cent  of  milk-fat.  By  acts  of  Con- 
gress approved  Aug.  2,  1886,  and  May  9,  1902,  butter 
may  also  contain  added  coloring  matter.^  "  The  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  passed 
a  number  of  regulations  regarding  adulterated  butter  on 
May  9,  1902.  The  following  paragraph  referring  to  the 
moisture  of  butter  is  taken  from  page  87  of  Regulations 
No.  9,  revised  July,  1907,  United  States  Internal  Revenue. 
"  The  definition  of  adulterated  butter  as  contained  in 
the  Act  of  May  9,  1902,  embraces  butter  in  the  manu- 
facture of  which  any  process  or  material  is  used  whereby 
the  product  is  made  to  contain  abnormal  quantities  of 
water,  milk,  or  cream ;  but  the  normal  content  of  mois- 
ture permissible  is  not  fixed  by  the  act.     This  being  the 

1  Standards  of  Purity  for  Food  Products,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri., 
Office  of  Sec,  Cir.  No.  136,  June,  1919. 

228 


DEFINITION   OF    TERMS  229 

case  it  becomes  necessary  to  adopt  a  standard  for  mois- 
ture in  butter,  which  shall  in  effect  represent  the  normal 
quantity.  It  is,  therefore,  held  that  butter  having  16 
per  cent  or  more  of  moisture  contains  an  abnormal  quan- 
tity and  is  classed  as  adulterated  butter."  The  exact 
amount  of  moisture,  therefore,  which  constitutes  adulter- 
ated butter,  i.e.  16  per  cent,  is  named  by  the  United 
States    Internal   Revenue. 

182.  Butter,  centralizer.  —  This  butter  is  made  in  a 
creamery  from  cream  that  has  been  shipped  long  distances 
to  this  central  plant.  Most  of  this  cream  is  separated 
on  the  farms. 

183.  Butter,  creamery.^  —  *'  Grades  of  butter  pro- 
duced in  large  establishments  directly  from  milk  or  cream 
are  known  as  creamery  butter."  At  large  exhibitions 
butter  made  of  cream  from  fixe  or  more  herds  is  con- 
sidered to  be  creamery  butter. 

184.  Butter,  dairy.  —  Dairy  butter  is  that  which  has 
been  made  in  a  dairy,  or  in  other  words  on  the  farm. 

185.  Butter-dealer.  —  A  wholesale  dealer  or  jobber  of 
butter. 

186.  Butter,  gathered-cream.  —  Gathered-cream  butter 
is  made  in  a  creamery  from  cream  that  has  been  collected 
or  "  gathered "  from  many  farms  where  it  has  been 
separated. 

187.  Butter,  ladled.  —  ''  The  product  commonly  known 
as  ladled  butter  is  a  grade  of  butter  made  by  mixing 
and  reworking  different  lots  or  parcels  of  butter  so  as 
to  secure  a  uniform  product.  This  is  known  by  various 
names  to  the  trade.  This  product  will  not  be  held  to 
be  renovated  butter  unless  in  addition  to  being  reworked 
it  is  melted  and  refined."  ^ 

1  Regulations  No.  9,  U.  S.  Internal  Revenue,  p.  87,  July,  1907. 


230  THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 

188.  Butter,  ranch.  —  This  product  is  made  on  ranches. 
'*  Ranch  "  butter  of  the  western  states  is  the  same  as 
'*  dairy  "  butter  of  the  central  and  eastern  states. 

189.  Butter,  renovated,  or  process.^  —  ''Regulation  1. 
The  Act  of  ]\Iay  9,  1902,  gives  to  the  manufacturer  of 
renovated  or  process  butter  the  option  to  call  the  product 
renovated  butter,  or  to  call  it  process  butter.  Regulation 
2.  The  following  explanation  of  the  definition  of  reno- 
vated butter,  as  it  occurs  in  the  law,  is  adopted  for  guid- 
ance in  connection  with  these  regulations : 

"'  (a)  This  grade  or  kind  of  butter  may  be  made  from 
one  or  more  lots  or  parcels  of  butter  which  has  been  or 
have  been  subjected  to  any  process  by  which  it  is  melted, 
clarified,  or  refined,  and  made  to  resemble  genuine  butter 
always  excepting  '  adulterated  '  butter  as  defined  by 
this  act.  It  may  or  may  not  have  common  salt  and 
harmless  artificial  coloring  added. 

"  (b)  The  law  defines  three  processes  of  refining  butter, 
which,  if  used,  make  the  resultant  article  adulterated 
butter,  in  contradistinction  to  renovated  butter,  as  fol- 
lows: 

"  First,  if  in  any  way,  any  acid,  alkali,  chemical,  or 
any  substance  whatever  is  introduced  or  used  for  the  pur- 
pose or  with  the  effect  of  deodorizing  or  removing  there- 
from rancidity ;  second,  if  there  is  mixed  any  substance 
foreign  to  butter  with  intent  or  effect  of  cheapening  in 
cost  the  product ;  and  third,  if,  in  any  way,  the  product 
is  made  to  contain  abnormal  quantities  of  water,  milk, 
or  cream." 

190.  Butter,  sweet.  —  Sweet  butter  is  the  unsalted 
product.  This  term  is  a  misnomer.  Originally,  sweet 
butter  was  made  from  sweet  cream  to  which  no  arti- 

^  Regulations  No.  9,  U.  S.  Internal  Revenue,  p.  99,  July,  1907. 


DEFINITION   OF    TERMS  231 

ficial   color  had   been  added  and  in  which  no  salt  had 
been  mixed. 

191.  Butter,  sweet  cream.  —  This  is  made  of  cream 
that  has  not  been  ripened  or  soured.  This  cream  should 
not  contain  over  .3  per  cent  acid.  The  butter  may  or  may 
not  contain  salt  and  may  or  may  not  be  colored  artificially. 

192.  Butter-trier.  —  An  instrument  used  to  obtain  a 
sample  of  butter  to  inspect.  It  is  made  of  metal  and  is 
of  such  a  shape  that  a  long  round  plug  may  be  pulled 
from  the  butter. 

193.  Butter,  whey.  —  Whey  butter  is  made  from  the 
cream  separated  from  the  whey  of  cheese. 

194.  Butter,  whole-milk.  —  WTiole-milk  butter  is  that 
made  in  a  creamery  where  the  milk  has  been  separated 
in  the  creamery  and  not  on  the  farms. 

195.  Buttermilk. — ^ ''Buttermilk  is  the  product  that 
remains  when  fat  is  removed  from  milk  or  cream,  sweet 
or  sour,  in  the  process  of  churning.  It  contains  not  less 
than  8.5  per  cent  milk  solids  not  fat."  ^ 

196.  Buttermilk,  artificial  or  commercial  or  cultured. 
—  Such  buttermilk  is  made  of  skimmed-milk  which  may 
contain  more  than  the  usual  amount  of  fat .  This  skimmed- 
milk  must  be  ripened.  If  known  as  cultured  butter- 
milk, it  must  be  ripened  by  the  introduction  of  certain 
micro-organisms. 

197.  Centralizer.  —  This  is  a  factory  in  which  cen- 
tralizer  l^utter  is  manufactured. 

198.  Cheese.  —  ''Cheese  is  the  sound,  solid,  and  ripened 
product  made  from  milk  or  cream  by  coagulating  the 
casein  thereof  with  rennet  or  lactic  acid,  with  or  without 
the  addition  of  ripening  ferments  and  seasoning,  and  con- 

1  Standards  of  Purity  for  Food  Products,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri., 
Off.  of  Sec,  Cir.  136,  June,  1919. 


232  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

tains,  in  water-free  substance,  not  less  than  fifty  per  cent 
(50%)  of  milk-fat.  By  act  of  Congress,  approved  June  6, 
1896,  cheese  may  also  contain  added  coloring  matter." 

199.  Cheesery  or  cheese  factory  is  an  establishment 
in  which  cheese  is  made. 

200.  Commission  merchant.  —  A  commission  merchant 
is  similar  to  a  butter-dealer  in  that  he  sells  at  wholesale. 
A  commission  merchant  in  the  true  sense  sells  the  butter 
for  the  shipper  and  charges  a  commission  for  the  transac- 
tion of  the  business.  Approximately  5  per  cent  of  the 
wholesale  price  is  the  usual  commission.  At  present 
tliere  are  not  many  commission  merchants. 

201.  Cream.' — "Cream,  sweet  cream,  is  that  portion 
of  milk,  rich  in  milk-fat,  which  rises  to  the  surface  of  milk 
on  standing,  or  is  separated  from  it  by  centrifugal  force, 
is  fresh  and  clean  and  contains  not  less  than  eighteen  (18) 
per  cent  of  milk-fat  and  not  more  than  .2  per  cent  of  acid 
reacting  substances  calculated  in  terms  of  lactic  acid."  ^ 

202.  Creamery.  —  A  creamery  is  a  factory  in  which 
creamery  butter  is  produced. 

203.  Dairy.  —  A  dairy  is  a  place,  usually  a  farm,  where 
milk-producing  cows  are  kept.  The  word  is  sometimes 
erroneously  applied  to  the  place  (room,  kitchen  or  building) 
in  which  dairy  products  are  manufactured. 

204.  Homogenized  milk  or  cream.  —  Homogenized 
milk  or  cream  is  milk  or  cream  that  has  been  mechanically 
treated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  alter  its  physical  properties 
with  particular  reference  to  the  condition  and  appearance 
of  the  fat  globules.^ 

205.  Margarine.  —  "That  for  the  purposes  of  this 
act   certain  manufactured   substances,    certain   extracts, 

^  Standards  of  Purity  for  Food  Products,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri., 
Off.  of  Sec,  Cir.  No.  136,  June,  1919. 


DEFINITION  OF  TERMS  233 

and  certain  mixtures  and  compounds,  including  such 
mixtures  and  compounds  with  butter,  shall  be  known  and 
designated  as  'Oleomargarine,'  namely:  All  substances 
heretofore  known  as  oleomargarine,  oleo,  oleomargarine- 
oil,  butterine,  lardine,  suine,  and  neutral;  all  mixtures 
and  compounds  of  oleomargarine,  oleo,  oleomargarine- 
oil,  butterine,  lardine,  suine,  and  neutral;  all  lard  extracts 
and  tallow  extracts;  and  all  mixtures  and  compounds 
of  tallow,  beef-fat,  suet,  lard,  lard-oil,  vegetable-oil, 
annatto  and  other  coloring  matter,  intestinal  fat,  and 
offal  fat  made  in  imitation  or  semblance  of  butter,  or  when 
so  made  calculated  or  intended  to  be  sold  as  butter  or 
for  butter."  ^ 

206.  Milk.  —  ''Milk  is  the  natural  food  of  the  young 
of  Mammalia.  It  is  secreted  in  the  mammary  glands  of 
the  female  parent  during  a  more  or  less  extended  period 
after  parturition."  - 

The  following  is  the  definition  of  milk  in  terms  of  the 
law:^  "Milk  is  the  whole,  fresh,  clean,  lacteal  secretion 
obtained  by  the  complete  milking  of  one  or  more  healthy 
cows,  properly  fed  and  kept,  excluding  that  obtained 
within  fifteen  days  before  and  five  days  after  calving,  or 
such  longer  period  as  may  be  necessary  to  render  the  milk 
practically  colostrum-free. 

207.  Milk-fat.3—'' Milk-fat,  butter-fat,  is  the  fat 
of  milk  and  has  a  Reichert-Meissl  number  not  less  than 
twenty-four   (24)   and   a  specific  gravity  not  less  than 

0.905  i^:^." 

(40°  C.) 

1  Reflations  No.  9,  U.  S.  Internal  Revenue,  p.  23,  1907.  Sec.  2, 
Acts  of  Aug.  2,  1886,  and  May  9,  1902. 

2  Pearson,  R.  A.,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  Vol.  III. 
5  Standards  of   Purity  for   Food   Products,   U.   S.   Dept.   Agri., 

Off.  of  Sec,  Cir.  No.  136,  June,  1919. 


234  THE  BOOK  OF  BITTER 

208.  Milk  plant.  —  A  place  where  liquid  milk  is  the 
major  product  handled. 

209.  Over-run.  —  The  increase  in  butter  sold  over  and 
above  the  butter-fat  paid  for  is  over-run.  It  may  be 
defined  as  the  sum  of  the  moisture,  salt,  and  casein  minus 
the  losses  in  manufacture. 

210.  Pasteurization  is  the  process  of  heating  a  liquid 
to  such  temperature  and  for  such  a  period  of  time  that 
nearh'  all  the  micro-organisms  in  it  are  killed.  It  includes 
the  cooling  of  the  liquid.  There  are  two  systems  of 
pasteurization  in  dairying:  first,  the  continuous  method, 
which  consists  of  heating  the  milk  or  cream  to  160°  F. 
to  185°  F.  for  an  instant  and  in  cooling  immediately; 
second,  the  holder  method,  which  heats  the  milk  or  cream 
to  145°  F.,  holding  it  at  this  heat  for  thirt}- minutes,  and 
cooling  it  immediately  to  the  desired  temperature. 

211.  Patron.  —  A  j^erson  who  sells  his  milk  or  cream  to 
a  dairy  concern. 

212.  Receiver.  —  A  receiver  is  a  wholesale  dealer  or 
jobber;  when  selling  butter,  he  is  a  butter-dealer. 

213.  Skimmed-milk.  —  "  Skimmed-milk  is  milk  from 
which  all  of  the  milk-fat  has  been  removed."  ^ 

214.  Starter  is  a  medium  containing  desirable  bacteria 
for  the  ripening  or  souring  of  dairy  products. 

215.  Sterilization  is  the  process  of  killing  all  the  micro- 
organisms. In  the  handling  of  dairy  products,  this  is 
accomplished  by  heat,  usually  with  steam.  It  should  be 
noted  that  for  want  of  a  better  term  this  word  is  often 
used  erroneously  in  connection  with  cleansing  dairy  appa- 
ratus. It  is  not  always  possible  to  sterilize  a  utensil 
with  steam  unless  it  is  placed  under  a  pressure  of  ten 

^  Standards  of  Puritv  for  Food  Products,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri., 
Off.  of  Sec,  Cir.  No.  136,  June,  1919. 


DEFINITION  OF  TERMS  235 

pounds  for  thirty  minutes.  This  gives  a  temperature  of 
110°  C.  The  expression  "thoroughly  scalding"  is  sug- 
gested for  the  process  of  holding  a  dairy  utensil  in  boiling 
water  for  a  minute  or  two,  or  of  rinsing  carefully  with 
boiling  water,  such  as  flushing  a  vat  or  steaming  a  can. 

216.  Thoroughly  scalding  is  the  process  of  heating 
with  steam  or  hot  water  to  such  a  temperature  that  nearly 
all  the  micro-organisms  are  killed.    It  is  not  sterilization. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
TKSTISG 

Testing  in  connection  with  the  manufacture  of  butter 
consists  in  the  use  of  the  Babcock  test  for  determining 
the  quantity  of  milk-fat  in  whole  milk,  cream,  skimmed- 
milk,  butter,  and  buttermilk ;  moisture  and  salt  tests 
for  butter ;  and  acidity  tests  for  milk  and  cream.  The 
most  essential  test  is  the  determination  of  milk-fat,  for 
this  is  the  main  constituent  of  butter.  Creameries  buy 
milk  and  cream  on  the  basis  of  their  fat-content.  The 
fat  test  for  butter  is  not  in  general  use.  When  employed, 
the  purpose  is  usually  to  determine  whether  the  composi- 
tion of  butter  is  w^ithin  the  requirements  of  the  law. 
One  reason  why  the  Babcock  test,  which  is  the  simplest 
one  for  fat,  is  not  used  for  testing  butter,  is  that  the  tech- 
nique is  not  as  simple  as  that  of  the  moisture  test.  Sim- 
plicity is  essential  for  a  layman,  such  as  a  creamery  operator. 

The  holding  of  samples  for  any  test  is  important.  If 
they  are  to  be  kept  for  one  or  two  days  or  for  a  longer 
period,  they  should  be  put  in  glass  bottles  with  ground 
glass  stoppers  so  that  interchange  of  moisture  between 
the  samples  and  the  air  may  not  take  place. 

217.  Important  factors  in  Babcock  test.  —  The  Bab- 
cock test  for  milk-fat  consists  in:  (1)  Obtaining  a  repre- 
sentative sample ;  (2)  taking  the  proper  amount  for  a 
test ;  (3)  the  addition  of  the  proper  amount  of  sulfuric 
acid  to  destroy  the  solids  not  fat ;  (4)  proper  centrifuging 
to  force  the  heavier  substances  in  the  acid  solution  to  the 

236 


TESTING  237 

bottom  of  the  test  bottle,  thus  crowding  the  lighter  con- 
stituent, the  fat,  into  the  graduated  neck;  (5)  careful 
addition  of  water  to  the  liquid,  when  forcing  the  fat  into 
the  neck  of  the  bottle ;   (6)  proper  reading. 

218.  Handling  of  composite  samples.  —  Composite 
samples  should  be  held  in  glass  bottles  with  ground  glass 
stoppers  as  mentioned  above.  A  preservative  such  as 
corrosi\e  sublimate  (mercuric  chloride)  should  be  used 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  prevent  the  souring  of  the  milk. 
It  is  good  practice  to  shake  the  sample  each  time  a  portion 
is  added  in  order  to  distribute  the  preservative  through- 
out. A  rotary  motion  should  be  used  in  this  agitation, 
since  it  is  desirable  that  a  minimum  amount  of  milk  or 
cream  be  splashed  on  the  sides  of  the  bottle.  When  this 
happens,  milk  or  cream  clings  to  the  sides  of  the  bottle 
above  the  surface  of  the  sample  and  is  likely  to  become  dry 
and  leathery ;  thus  it  is  in  bad  condition  to  prepare  for 
testing.  Coloring  matter  should  be  used  in  the  preserva- 
tive as  a  warning  that  poison  is  present.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  add  a  few  drops  of  formaldehyde  to  prevent  the  growth 
of  mold. 

219.  Samplmg  sour  milk  and  cream.  —  INIilk  so  sour 
that  it  is  curdled  cannot  be  sampled  properly  with- 
out special  precaution.  Milk  that  is  sour  but  not 
curdled  may  be  correctly  sampled.  However,  it  should 
be  tested  soon  after  it  is  sampled.  Sour  cream  is  hardly 
as  difficult  to  sample  as  sour  milk ;  nevertheless  it  is  more 
readily  handled  when  it  is  sweet. 

220.  Sampling  frozen  milk  and  cream.  —  According 
to  Ross  and  :McInerney,^  partly  frozen  milk  should  never 

1  Ross,  H.  E.,and  McTnerney,  T.  J.,  The  Babcock  Test,  with 
Special  Reference  to  Testing  Cream,  Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Exp. 
Sta.,  Bui.  337,  p.  35,  1913. 


238 


THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 


be  sampled  for  testing,  since  such  sample  will  not  be  repre- 
sentative. It  is  said  that  such  milk  should  be  melted  and 
carefully  remixed  before  any  is  taken  for  a  test,  but  in  melt- 
ing the  ice  a  temperature  of  not  over  85°  F.  should  be  em- 
ployed. Too  high  temperature  is  likely  to  melt  the  fat  and 
cause  a  separation  in  the  form  of  an  oil.  ^^^len  this  hap- 
pens, it  is  almost  impossible  to  remix  it  evenly  with  the  milk. 
If  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  several  hours  before  freezing, 
the  fat  will  rise  to  the  surface  and  form  a  cream  line.  If 
this  line  freezes,  the  ice  will  be  rich  in  fat.  If  the  milk  is 
agitated  while  freezing,  the  ice  formed  will  be  low  in  fat, 
since  freezing  tends  to  squeeze  the  fat  out  of  the  ice.  Thus 
the  liquid  portion  contains  a  greater  proportion  of  fat  than 
the  ice.  If  the  creamery-man  samples  frozen  milk,  he  is 
likely  to  pay  for  more  fat  than  he  actually  receives.  In  the 
following  table,  Ross  and  Mclnerney  ^  compare  the  percent- 
ages of  fat  found  in  samples  of  partly  frozen  whole  milk : 


Table 


XXVIII  —  Percentage  of  Fat  Found  in  Milk  in 
Various  Conditions  as  to  Freezing 


Percentage  op  Fat 

Sample 

In  Original 
Milk 

In  Partly  Frozen  Milk 

Liquid  part 

Ice 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

2.9 
3.9 
4.7 
1.8 
2.3 
4.7 
3.7 
3.2 
3.6 
4.2 

3.1 
4.2 
5.0 
1.9 
2.5 
5.0 
4.4 
3.5 
3.8 
4.3 

2.6 
3.2 
3.7 
1.6 
2.2 
4.1 
3.0 
3.3 
3.2 
3.9 

1  Ross,  H.  E.,  and  Mclnerney,  T.  J.,  The  Babcock  Test,  etc. 
Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  337,  p.  35,  1913. 


TESTING  239 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  smallest  difference  between 
the  liquid  part  and  the  ice  is  .2  per  cent  and  the  greatest 
1.4.  Probably  the  variation  in  frozen  cream  is  much 
greater. 

221.  Sampling  whole  milk.  —  When  testing  a  single 
batch  of  whole  milk,  it  must  be  agitated  thoroughly  before 
a  sample  is  taken.  In  taking  a  composite  sample  in  the 
usual  way  in  creameries,  it  is  a  question  whether  it  pays 
to  take  the  time  to  agitate  the  milk  after  it  has  been  poured 
into  the  weigh-can,  for  it  seems  that  if  the  portion  placed 
in  the  composite  sample  is  lower  in  fat  than  the  average 
of  the  batch  of  milk  from  which  it  is  taken  on  one  day, 
it  may  be  a  little  higher  the  next  day.  Thus  at  the  end  of 
fifteen  days,  which  is  the  usual  time  in  creameries  between 
tests,  the  composite  test  would  be  the  same  whether  the 
daily  batches  were  thoroughly  agitated  or  not  stirred  at 
all.  In  this  relation  Potts  ^  first  discusses  the  limit  of 
error  in  reading  in  relation  to  the  error  of  sampling.  He 
says  it  is  impossible  in  our  present  test-bottles  for 
whole  milk  to  read  closer  than  .1  per  cent,  that  a  sample 
may  really  test  .05  per  cent  higher  or  lower  in  fat  than  it 
is  read,  and  that  likewise  another  sample  may  test  .05 
per  cent  lower  or  higher  than  it  is  read.  Therefore,  there 
might  be  a  difi^erence  of  .1  per  cent  due  to  reading  the 
first  sample  too  high  and  the  second  sample  too  low.  In 
like  manner  in  testing  cream  in  the  six-inch  test-bottles 
graduated  to  read  to  50  per  cent,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  allow  .5  per  cent  as  a  reading  error.  The  following 
figures  show  the  results  of  different  methods  of  obtaining 
composite  samples  in  comparison  with  a  daily  sample  and 
test.     Composite  sample  A  was  taken  with  a  little  dipper 

1  Potts,  A.  E.,  Sampling  of  Milk,  Thesis  in  Cornell  Univ. 
Library,  1913. 


240 


THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 


which  was  attached  to  the  stirring-rod  or  agitator ;  com- 
posite sample  B  with  a  metal  tube  which  drew  very  nearly 
an  aliquot  portion ;  composite  sample  C  rather  carelessly 
with  a  McKay  sampler.  The  McKay  sampler  bends 
fairly  easily  and  soon  begins  to  leak ;  therefore,  the  sam- 
ples procured  with  it  were  taken  in  the  usual  rapid  way  of 
creamery  practice. 

Table  XXIX  —  Summary  of  Seven  Day  Composites 


Samples 

Pounds 
OF  Milk 

i 

Pounds 
OF  Fat 

Daily 

27,029 

1187.094 

Com- 

posite A 

27,029 

1176.411 

Com- 

posite B 

27,029 

1179.340 

Com- 

posite C 

27,029 

1185.150 

Number 
Patrons 

Number 
Patrons 

Average 
Fat  Test 
OF  Milk 

Receiving 
More  by 
Composite 

Receiving 

Less  by 
Composite 

THAN   BY 

Daily 

THAN    BY 

Daily 

4.391 

— 

— 

4.352 

23 

37 

4.363 

22 

38 

4.384 

32 

28 

Pounds 
Fat  More 
BY  Daily 

THAN    BY 

Composite 


10.683 
7.754 
1.944 


It  should  be  noticed  that  the  readings  of  the  average 
fat  test  of  the  milk  are  very  close.  This  milk  was  delivered 
by  sixty  patrons.  There  were  420  daily  and  sixty  com- 
posite tests  made.  Potts  shows  further  figures  which 
record  results  similar  to  the  above.  The  samples  were 
obtained  from  sixty-six  patrons  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  the  above  case,  excepting  that  the  experiment  con- 
tinued fourteen  instead  of  seven  days. 

Here  again  the  readings  of  ''  average  fat  test  of  milk  " 
are  seemingly  very  nearly  the  same.  They  would  all 
be  read  4.00  per  cent  fat  on  a  milk  test-bottle.  It  might 
seem  that  better  results  would  be  obtained  in  a  seven-day 


TESTING 


241 


than  in  a  fourteen-day  composite  sample.  However,  it 
should  be  noted  that  these  are  the  results  of  only  two  series 
of  experiments.  It  may  also  appear  that  there  is  a  loss 
of  fat  to  the  farmer  by  the  composite  method  of  sampling 
milk.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  noted  that  all  the 
tests  in  both  tables  are  within  the  limit  of  error  in  reading. 
The  most  interesting  item  to  be  noticed  in  these  tables  is 
the  close  comparison  of  the  diflFerent  methods  of  composite 
sampling. 

Table  XXX  —  Summary  of  Fourteen  Day  Composites 


Samples 

Pounds 
OF  Milk 

Pounds 
OF  Fat 

Average 
Fat  Test 
OF  Milk 

Number 

Patrons 
Receiving 

More  by 
Composite 

than  by 
Daily 

Number 
Patrons 

Receiving 
Less  by 

Composite 

THAN   BY 

Daily 

Pounds 
Fat  More 
BY  Daily 

THAN   BY 

Composite 

Daily 

80,638 

3325.625 

4.131 

_ 

_ 

_ 

Com- 

posite A 

80,638 

3251.851 

4.039 

10 

56 

73.774 

Com- 

posite B 

80,638 

3220.397 

4.00 

12 

54 

105.228 

Com- 

posite C 

80,638 

3255.241 

4.044 

13 

53 

70.384 

Kent  ^  compared  the  daily  and  the  composite  testing 
for  a  period  of  thirteen  days.  There  were  fifty-two  pa- 
trons. Three  samples  were  taken  as  follows  from  the 
milk  delivered  by  each  patron  :  a  daily  sample,  a  composite 
sample  for  which  the  daily  portions  were  obtained  with  a 
small  dipper,  and  a  composite  sample  for  which  the  daily 
portions  were  secured  with  a  Scoville  sampling  tube. 
The  average  daily  test  was  4.01   per  cent,  the  dipper 

1  Kent,  F.  L.,  Testing  Milk  and  Cream,  Oregon  Agri.  Exp. 
Sta.,  Bui.  70,  1902. 


242  THE    BOOK   OF  BUTTER 

composite  sample  test  3.95  per  cent,  and  the  composite 
sample  taken  with  the  Scoville  sampler  tested  4.00  per 
cent.  Thus  the  daily  test  was  again  slightly  higher  than 
the  others,  but  it  was  well  within  the  limit  of  error  in  read- 
ing. These  small  differences  might  be  explained  in  the 
following  way :  There  is  a  natural  tendency  to  read  a 
test  high  in  the  same  way  that  it  is  natural  to  give  a  small 
over-weight  or  slight  over-measure  when  weighing  or 
measuring  butter  or  any  other  article.  As  long  as  there 
were  seven-,  fourteen-,  and  thirty-day  periods  respectively, 
there  would  be  seven,  fourteen,  and  thirty  times  as  many 
readings  to  make  in  the  daily  as  in  the  composite  samples. 
Thus  there  might  easily  be  a  difference  of  the  above 
amounts  of  fat  due  to  this  one  reason. 

222.  Testing  whole  milk.  —  The  following  are  the  steps 
for  testing  whole  milk  for  fat:  1.  Agitate  the  sample 
thoroughly  in  order  to  obtain  a  representative  portion. 

2.  With  the  regular  milk  pipette,  measure  out  17.6 
c.c.  of  milk  and  put  it  into  the  test-bottle. 

3.  With  an  acid  measure  add  the  sulfuric  acid  (com- 
mercial H2SO4,  Sp.  G.  1.82  to  1.83)  to  the  milk  in  the 
test-bottle,  being  careful  to  hold  the  bottle  in  such  a  way 
that  the  acid  will  run  down  the  sides  of  the  neck  and 
the  bowl  rather  than  to  allow  it  to  go  directly  into  the 
milk.  When  the  acid  is  added  in  this  way  it  will  go  to  the 
bottom  of  the  bottle  and  rise  under  the  milk;  thus  the 
fat  is  not  so  likely  to  be  scorched  as  when  the  acid  is 
poured  immediately  into  the  milk.  The  test-bottle  should 
be  revolved  slowly  when  the  acid  is  being  added  in  order 
to  carry  down  any  milk  that  may  adhere  to  the  neck  of 
the  bottle.  The  exact  amount  of  acid  to  add  depends 
largely  on  the  temperature  of  the  acid  and  of  the  milk. 
If  the  temperatures  are  high,  less  acid  is  necessary  than 


TESTING  243 

when  they  are  normal.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the 
temperatures  are  low,  a  slightly  larger  amount  of  acid 
may  be  used. 

4.  Shake  the  test-bottles  until  the  milk  and  acid  are 
thoroughly  mixed.  It  is  difficult  to  secure  a  clear  test 
if  the  agitation  of  the  acid  and  milk  has  not  been  thorough. 
A  rotary  motion  should  be  used  so  as  not  to  fill  the  neck 
of  the  bottle  with  coagulum, 

5.  Place  the  test-bottles  in  the  centrifuge  and  revolve  it 
at  the  required  speed  as  indicated  by  the  directions  on 
the  machine. 

6.  After  centrifuging  for  five  minutes,  stop  the  ma- 
chine and  fill  each  to  the  shoulder  with  warm  or  hot 
water  as  the  conditions  may  require.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  will  depend  on  that  of  the  machine  and 
of  the  room.  If  the  centrifuge  is  very  hot,  due  to  poor 
steam  exhaust,  the  water  should  probably  not  be  above 
110°  to  120°  F.  In  the  hot  summer  season,  when  the 
milk  and  the  acid  are  warm,  the  temperature  of  this 
water  should  be  about  110°  F.  and  not  boiling. 

7.  Revolve  the  centrifuge  at  the  required  speed. 

8.  At  the  end  of  two  minutes  of  centrifuging  at  full 
speed,  stop  and  fill  the  test-bottles  with  hot  water.  The 
fat  should  be  raised  toward  the  top  of  the  graduation  in 
the  neck  of  the  bottle.  Care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
the  overflowing  of  the  test-bottles. 

9.  Revolve  the  centrifuge  for  one  minute  at  the  required 
speed. 

10.  Read  the  tests,  which  should  now  have  clear  dis- 
tinct lines.  The  fat  should  be  a  straw-yellow  color  and 
the  liquid  under  the  fat  should  be  as  clear  as  crystal. 
The  tests  should  be  read  as  they  are  taken  from  the  centri- 
fuge and  before  they  are  cooled.     The  reading  should 


244  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

include  the  fat  within  the  top  of  the  meniscus  and  what 
would  constitute  a  straight  line  at  the  bottom  of  the  fat. 

11.  Record  the  readings. 

223.  Sampling  cream.  —  Cream  is  more  sticky  than 
whole  milk.  It  clings  to  the  agitators,  cans,  bottles,  and 
the  like,  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  hard  to  sample.  This 
is  especially  noticeable  when  the  cream  is  sour  and  the 
body  is  heavy  and  sticky.  There  has  been  more  or  less 
discussion  concerning  some  of  the  essentials  in  sampling 
cream.  Recently  Scoville  ^  made  investigations  on  this 
subject  under  the  heading  of  "  Difference  in  Sampling 
Cream  when  Cold  and  Thick  or  Warm  and  Fluid." 
He  states  that  some  of  the  cream  was  very  nearly  a  solid 
mass  when  received  at  the  creamery.  In  such  condition 
it  was  impossible  to  stir  properly,  so  a  sample  was  taken 
with  a  McKay  sampling  tube  which  had  been  warmed 
in  hot  water.  This  tube  took  a  column  of  cream  from 
the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  can,  and  when  the  tube  was 
warmed  it  discharged  practically  all  the  cream.  He 
calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  is  a  practice  followed 
in  some  creameries  and  that  the  question  arises  as  to  its 
accuracy,  whether  it  is  possible  to  secure  an  accurate 
sample  in  this  manner  or  whether  the  serum  on  standing 
settles  to  the  bottom,  thus  making  the  test  read  high. 
The  experimental  cream  that  Scoville  used  was  obtained 
from  a  station  which  was  separating  a  very  heavy  cream. 
Each  can  was  sampled  after  stirring  as  well  as  possible 
while  the  cream  was  cold  and  heavy.  Then  it  was  warmed 
gradually  in  warm  water  to  a  temperature  of  approxi- 
mately 85°  F.  During  this  time  the  cream  was  stirred 
carefully  so  as  not  to  churn  it,  until  it  became  less  thick 

1  Scoville,  R.  I.,  Some  Factors  Affecting  the  Over-run  in  Cream- 
eries, A  Thesis  in  Cornell  Univ.  Library,  p.  18,  1916. 


TESTING 


245 


and  more  fluid,  at  which  time  another  sample  was  taken. 
Both  samples  were  obtained  with  a  McKay  sampling 
tube.     The  following  table  shows  the  results : 


Table 


XXXI  —  The  Effect  of  Widely  Varying  Tempera- 
tures ON  Sampling  Cream 


Number  op 

DeTERMINATIO  N8 


83 


Average  Tem- 
perature OF 
Cold  Cream 


56.5°  F. 


Average  Tem- 
perature OP 
Warm  Cream 


85.5°  F. 


Average  Test 
op  Cold 
Cream 


Per  Cent 

50.66 


Average  Test 

op  Warm 

Cream 


Per  Cent 
50.86 


One  peculiar  fact  these  figures  show  is  that  the  test 
of  the  warm  cream  is  slightly  higher  than  that  of  the 
cold.  In  theory  the  cold  cream  should  test  more  than  the 
warm,  as  it  is  logical  to  think  that  the  cream  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  can  would  be  thinner  than  on  the  surface,  for 
cold  cream  is  difficult  to  agitate.  If  there  is  thin  cream 
at  the  bottom  of  the  can  and  if  the  McKay  sampling  tube 
should  leak  this  from  the  lower  end,  the  test  would  be  a 
little  higher. 

Scoville  also  published  data  on  sampling  cream  that  stood 
twenty-four  hours.  This  was  always  sour,  fairly  cool,  and 
was  quite  thick.    The  following  is  a  summary  of  his  figures : 


Table 


XXXII  —  A  Comparison  of  Sampling  Cream  after 
Standing  Twenty-four  Hours 


Number  of  Deter- 
minations 


35 


Average  Test  of 

Cream  Taken 

with  McKay 

Tube  before 

Stirring 


Per  Cent 
41.69 


Average  Test  of 

Cream  Taken 

WITH  McKay 

Tube  after 

Stirring 


Per  Cent 

41.55 


Average  Test  of 

Cream  Taken 

WITH  Dipper 

after  Stirring 


Per  Cent 
41.88 


246  THE   BOOK   OF  BUTTER 

These  tables  show  that  there  is  very  Httle  difference  in 
the  test  of  the  cream,  whether  thoroughly  agitated, 
partially  mixed  or  not  stirred  at  all.  The  latter  table 
also  shows  that  there  is  very  little  difference  in  the  test 
of  the  cream  when  the  sampling  is  made  with  a  McKay 
sampling  tube,  which  is  supposed  to  obtain  very  nearly 
an  aliquot  sample,  and  the  little,  easily  handled,  inex- 
pensive sampling  dipper. 

The  question  of  the  advisability  of  composite  sampling 
of  cream  is  still  unsettled.  Hunziker  ^  thinks  that  it 
is  not  satisfactory  largely  from  the  standpoint  of  cream- 
ery records,  because  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  cream  should 
be  known  every  day.  From  the  viewpoint  of  accuracy, 
this  method  of  sampling  cannot  be  criticized  if  made  prop- 
erly. The  sample  jar  or  bottle  must  be  air-tight. 
Ground  glass  stoppers  are  absolutely  essential.  Lee 
and  Hepburn  ^  have  probably  done  the  most  extensive 
work  on  the  composite  sampling  of  cream.  Their  com- 
parisons of  daily  and  composite  tests  were  on  the  cream 
of  seventy-seven  patrons,  and  their  work  covered  a  period 
of  one  year.  Their  results  show  a  marked  tendency  for 
variation  between  composite  and  individual  sampling 
for  short  periods,  but  that  the  distribution  of  this  varia- 
tion is  such  as  to  occasion  very  small  amounts  of  differ- 
ence when  figured  on  seasonal  periods.  Their  figures 
indicate  that  composite  samples  tend  to  test  slightly 
higher  than  individual  ones  in  summer,  and  lower  in 
winter.  The  yearly  average  shows  practically  no  differ- 
ence between  the  composite  and  individual  samples. 

1  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  Testing  Cream  for  Butter  Fat,  Purdue 
Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  145,  p.  552,  1910. 

2  Lee,  C.  E.,  and  Hepburn,  N.  W.,  Comparison  of  Methods  of 
Sampling  Cream  for  Testing,  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  153,  pp.  547 
and  574,  1912. 


TESTING 


247 


Scoville  ^  also  found  that  there  is  very  little  difference 
in  the  amount  of  fat  in  the  cream  when  sampled  in- 
dividually or  compositely.  The  following  table  shows  the 
results  of  his  work.  Each  composite  sample  was  composed 
of  portions  taken  from  two  to  six  cans  of  cream : 

Table  XXXIII  —  A  Comparison  of  Individual  and  Com- 
posite Sampling  of  Cream 


Number  of  Com- 
posite Samples 

Number  op  Indi- 
vidual Samples 

Composite  Sample 

Individual  Sample 

Pounds  Fat 

Pounds  Fat 

20 

83 

3,183.50 

3,169.71 

This  table  shows  a  difference  of  13.79  pounds  of  fat 
during  the  twenty  days  or  a  little  over  .4  per  cent  of  the 
entire  amount  of  fat  in  favor  of  the  patrons.  This  is 
the  opposite  of  what  Lee  and  Hepburn  -  found,  for, 
according  to  Lee's  readings,  the  composite  fell  below  the 
daily  test  .27  per  cent  and,  according  to  Hepburn,  the 
composite  samples  showed  .16  per  cent  less  fat  than  in  the 
daily  sample. 

The  composite  sampling  of  cream  seems  to  be  as 
accurate  as  testing  the  daily  or  individual  samples,  and  it 
is  evidently  as  satisfactory  as  the  composite  method  of 
sampling  whole  milk.  Again,  the  time-saving  feature  of 
composite  testing  should  be  emphasized.  It  is  true  that 
in  many  creameries  it  would  not  be  possible  to  keep  good 
daily  records  without  a  daily  test  of  each  patron's  cream, 

1  Scoville,  R.  I.,  Some  Factors  Affecting  the  Over-run  in 
Creameries,  A  Thesis  in  Cornell  Univ.  Library,  p.  21,  1916. 

2  Lee,  Carl  E.,  and  Hepburn,  N.  W.,  Comparison  of  Methods 
of  Sampling  Cream  for  Testing,  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  153, 
p.  574,  1912. 


248  THE   BOOK  OF   BUTTER 

whereas  in  other  factories  the  record  keeping  would  be 
even  more  simple  if  the  composite  method  were  in  force. 

224.  Testing  cream.  —  The  testing  of  cream  for  fat 
by  the  Babcock  method  is  similar  to  that  of  testing  milk. 
Some  of  the  steps  require  modification.  The  procedure 
should  be  as  follows : 

1.  Agitate  the  sample  thoroughly  in  order  to  obtain 
an  aliquot  portion  to  test.  If  the  cream  is  cold,  it  should 
be  warmed  to  80°  or  85°  F. 

2.  Weigh  9  grams  of  the  cream  into  the  test-bottle. 
The  bottle  that  is  now  in  common  use  is  graduated  to  read 
to  50  per  cent  and  the  reading  is  obtained  directly  if  9 
grams  of  cream  are  used.  It  is  necessary  to  have  delicate 
scales  and  they  must  be  maintained  in  a  sensitive  con- 
dition. Only  one  bottle  should  be  weighed  at  a  time. 
IVIany  creameries  use  scales  that  weigh  as  high  as  twelve 
bottles  at  once.  Scales  that  carry  so  many  bottles  are 
not  as  delicate  as  the  smaller  ones,  and  there  is  greater 
opportunity  for  error  when  several  bottles  are  balanced 
at  one  time.  The  purposes  of  weighing  instead  of  measur- 
ing cream  as  practiced  with  milk  are :  (a)  cream  is  so 
sticky  that  it  cannot  all  be  discharged  from  the  pipette ; 
(b)  the  specific  gravity  is  variable,  for  it  may  test  15  or 
16  per  cent  or  may  contain  60  per  cent  fat  or  more ;  (c) 
cream  contains  variable  quantities  of  air.  Therefore, 
all  cream  samples  should  be  weighed.  They  should  never 
be  measured. 

3.  Add  cold  or  warm  water  or  do  not  add  any,  depending 
on  conditions  and  the  results  of  experience.  If  the  cen- 
trifuge becomes  very  warm  on  account  of  poor  exhaust 
of  steam,  or  in  very  warm  weather,  cold  water  may  be 
used.  Ordinarily  the  water  should  be  sufficiently  warm 
to  melt  the  fat  in  the  neck  of  the  cream  test-bottle  so  as  to 


TESTING  249 

carry  it  down  into  the  acid  solution.  The  amount  of  water 
necessary  to  dilute  the  cream  depends  on  the  percentage 
of  fat  in  the  cream,  and  on  the  method  usually  followed 
by  an  operator.  Often  a  creamery  operator  will  add 
approximately  9  c.c.  of  water  to  9  grams  of  cream.  Many 
creamery-men  do  not  add  water;  thus  less  acid  is 
necessary,  which  is  a  saving  of  expense  and  time.  Or- 
dinarily at  least  a  few  cubic  centimeters  of  water  should 
be  put  into  the  cream. 

4.  Add  the  sulfuric  acid.  The  amount  necessary 
depends  largely  on  the  quantity  of  water  used  in  step  3, 
and  on  the  temperatures  of  the  cream  and  acid.  Usually 
9  grams  of  cream  and  9  c.c.  of  water  require  about  2 
or  3  c.c.  less  acid  than  Avhole  milk,  or  14  or  16  c.c. 
If  no  water  is  added,  approximately  8  c.c.  of  acid  is 
sufficient.  There  should  be  enough  acid  added  to  bring 
the  color  of  the  solution  and  cream  to  a  chocolate 
brown  shade. 

Steps  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  and  10  are  the  same  as  steps  4,  5,  6, 
7,  8,  and  9,  under  "  Testing  whole  milk,"  par.  222. 

5.  Place  the  test-bottles  in  a  specially  constructed 
tank  or  bath  for  maintaining  uniform  temperatures,  after 
the  water  in  the  bath  has  first  been  regulated  to  the 
proper  heat.  According  to  Hunziker,^  the  temperature  of 
the  fat  when  read  should  be  135°  F.  Ross  and  Mclnerney  ^ 
state  that  the  temperature  of  the  fat  at  this  time  should  be 
between  140°  and  150°  F.  for  at  least  three  minutes.  This 
means  that  the  tempering  w^ater  should  be  raised  as  high 
as  the  top  of  the  fat  column  in  the  test-bottles  and  that 

1  Hunziker,  O.  F.,  Testing  Cream  for  Butter  Fat,  Purdue 
Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  145,  p.  591,  1910. 

2  Ross,  H.  E.,  and  Mclnerney,  T.  J.,  The  Babcock  Test  with 
Special  Reference  to  Testing  Cream,  Cornell  University  Agri. 
Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  337,  p.  41,  1913. 


250  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

the  bottles  should  remain  in  the  water  at  140°  F.  for  at 
least  three  minutes. 

6.  Add  the  meniscus-remover,  which  is  a  light  oil 
such  as  the  best  grades  of  separator  oils.  The  original 
oil  used  was  glymol,  known  commonly  under  the  name  of 
white  mineral  oil.  This  oil  should  be  colored  to  aid  in 
reading.  Alkanet  root,  which  gives  a  red  color,  is  very 
satisfactory  for  this  purpose.  Approximately  .5  c.c.  of 
the  meniscus-remover  should  be  added  to  each  test-bottle 
while  it  is  still  in  the  tempering  bath  and  just  before  it  is 
time  to  read.  Care  must  be  observed  in  adding  the 
meniscus-remover.  If  allow^ed  to  drop  directly  on  the 
fat,  the  force  of  the  fall  will  cause  it  to  penetrate  into 
the  fat.  It  should  be  allowed  to  run  down  the  neck  of  the 
bottle  and  from  there  it  w^ill  spread  over  the  fat  and  produce 
a  distinct  and  flat  line  of  division  between  the  fat  and  the 
oil.  A  cream  test  should  never  be  read  without  the 
meniscus-remover. 

7.  Read  the  fat  from  the  bottom  of  the  column  as 
noted  under  "  Testing  whole  milk  "  to  the  distinct  line  of 
demarcation  at  the  top,  which  is  betw^een  the  fat  and  the 
meniscus-remover.  The  reading  of  each  test  should  be 
made  immediately  after  taking  the  test-bottle  from  the 
tempering  bath,  for  the  temperature  of  the  fat  will  soon 
drop  below  140°  F.  when  held  at  room  heat. 

8.  Record  the  readings  as  each  test  is  read. 

225.  Sampling  skimmed-milk  and  buttermilk. — These 
products  are  easily  sampled,  for  the  fat  globules  in  them 
are  so  small  that  they  do  not  come  to  the  surface  readily. 
The  most  accurate  w^ay  to  obtain  these  samples  is  to  take 
them  from  the  tank  into  which  ether  has  been  run. 
However,  in  general  practice  they  may  be  satisfactorily 
sampled  by  occasionally  taking  a  portion,  in  case  of  the 


TESTING  251 

skimmed-milk,  as  it  flows  from  the  separator,  or  in  the 
case  of  buttermilk,  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  churn.  A  drip 
sample  is  often  the  most  convenient  method  of  obtaining 
skimmed-milk  to  test.  This  is  taken  as  follows  :  a  small 
pail  is  hung  under  a  hole  in  the  lower  side  of  the  skimmed- 
milk  spout  of  the  separator ;  a  portion  of  the  skimmed- 
milk  will  drip  through  this  hole  into  the  pail. 

226.  Testing  skimmed-milk  and  buttermilk.  —  The 
testing  of  these  products  is  similar  to  that  of  testing  whole 
milk,  with  the  exception  of  steps  3  and  6.  In  testing 
whole  milk,  a  measure  of  17.5  c.c.  of  acid  is  used  as  noted 
in  step  3,  while  in  testing  skimmed  and  buttermilk  about 
2  c.c.  more  acid  is  necessary,  because  there  is  a  greater 
amout  of  solids  not  fat  to  be  destroyed.  When  testing 
whole  milk,  the  centrifuge  is  run  for  five  minutes  during 
the  first  run  as  directed  in  step  6.  According  to  Ross  and 
Mclnerney,^  skimmed-milk  should  be  centrifuged  ten 
minutes  during  the  first  run.  This  should  also  be  true 
of  buttermilk.  The  centrifuge  should  be  operated  the 
same  periods  of  time  in  the  second  and  third  runs  as  in 
testing  whole  milk.  The  reason  for  a  longer  time  being  re- 
quired in  centrifuging  skimmed  and  buttermilk  is  that  the 
fat  globules  which  remain  in  these  products  are  small  and 
are  not  readily  brought  into  the  neck  of  the  test-bottle. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  special  bottles  should  be  used 
in  testing  skimmed  and  buttermilk,  and  that  when  they 
are  placed  in  the  centrifuge,  the  funnel  tubes  and  the 
graduated  necks  should  be  put  on  the  same  plane.  This 
permits  the  fat  to  rise  more  readily  in  the  graduated  neck 
than  if  the  bottles  were  placed  in  some  other  position. 

1  Ross,  H.  E.,and  Mclnerney,  T.  J.,  The  Babcoek  Test  with 
Special  Reference  to  Testing  Cream,  Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Exp. 
Sta.,  Bui.  337,  p.  35,  1913. 


252  THE   BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

227.  Sampling  butter.  —  The  fat-content  of  butter  is 
variable.  Lee,  Hepburn,  and  Barnhart  ^  show  that  the 
variation  in  the  fat-content  from  one  churning  in  which 
ten  samples  were  taken  was  83.15  per  cent  in  the  lowest 
test  and  84.57  per  cent  in  the  highest.  In  another  churning, 
from  ten  samples,  the  percentage  of  fat  varied  from  80.82 
in  the  lowest  to  83.58  in  the  highest.  It  is  apparent, 
therefore,  that  carefulness  in  the  sampling  of  butter  for  a 
fat  test  is  essential.  It  is  well  when  obtaining  a  sample 
from  the  churn  to  take  at  least  twelve  portions.  In 
sampling  butter  from  the  churn,  a  hardwood  spatula  may 
be  used.  The  top  of  the  butter  should  be  cut  back  with  a 
ladle,  thus  freeing  it  of  loose  moisture  that  may  have 
dropped  on  it  from  the  churn.  Then  the  portion  may  be 
taken  with  the  spatula.  If  the  butter  is  in  tubs  and  it  is 
desired  to  sample  the  entire  churning  from  these  tubs,  the 
sample  may  be  taken  with  a  trier  if  the  butter  has  first 
been  chilled.  The  trier  plug  should  extend  diagonally 
from  one  side  at  the  top  to  the  opposite  side  at  the  bottom 
of  the  tub.  The  top  two  inches  of  the  plug  should  be 
returned  to  the  hole  so  that  the  package  may  not  be  de- 
faced. Each  tub  of  the  churning  should  be  bored.  If 
this  method  of  sampling  is  followed  in  daily  practice,  too 
much  butter  is  used  and  the  buyer  is  likely  to  complain. 
The  method  of  sampling  for  the  daily  record  employed 
in  the  Cornell  University  creamery  laboratory  is  to  remove 
a  small  portion  with  the  wooden  spatula  from  each  tub, 
or  from  each  printerful.  Thus  from  ten  to  forty  portions 
are  taken  for  a  single  sample  from  one  churning.  The 
portion  is  secured  from  the  top  of  the  tub  or  printerful 
after  the  butter  is  cut  with  a  wire  and  rolled    up  to  be 

1  Lee,  Carl  E.,  Hepburn,  X.  W.,  and  Barnhart,  Jesse  M., 
Univ.  of  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  137,  p.  322,  1909. 


TESTING  253 

removed.  If  only  one  tub  or  other  package  is  to  be 
examined  and  an  especially  accurate  test  is  desired,  it  is 
advisable  to  take  two  or  three  plugs  at  least,  extending 
from  one  side  of  the  package  at  the  top  diagonally  to  the 
opposite  side  at  the  bottom. 

The  sample  should  be  put  in  a  glass  bottle  with  a 
ground  glass  stopper.  This  must  be  closely  observed  in 
order  to  prevent  evaporation  of  moisture.  It  is  essential 
that  the  bottle  should  have  a  large  opening  to  permit  easy 
stirring  of  the  butter  when  it  is  being  prepared  for  testing. 
It  is  also  important  that  the  shoulder  of  the  bottle  is  not 
so  deep  that  the  butter  may  collect  under  it  in  the  pre- 
paratory process. 

228.  Testing  butter.  —  The  following  are  the  steps  in 
testing  butter  for  fat : 

1.  Prepare  the  sample  by  holding  the  jar  in  a  pail  of 
water  at  a  temperature  of  110°  to  120°  F.  until  the  butter 
is  the  consistency  of  thick  cream.  During  this  time 
the  sample  should  be  agitated.  A  hardwood  spatula 
is  a  convenient  tool  for  this  purpose.  The  stirring  should 
be  sufficient  to  make  a  uniform  mass  of  the  butter,  and 
when  a  portion  is  taken  for  the  test  it  will  be  representative 
of  the  sample.  If  care  has  been  exercised  in  warming  the 
sample,  so  that  it  is  not  too  soft,  it  will  not  be  necessary 
to  cool  it  during  the  latter  part  of  the  agitation.  Time 
may  be  saved  if  the  operator  is  watchful  and  does  not 
permit  the  fat  to  become  too  soft. 

2.  Weigh  the  proper  amount  of  butter  from  this  pre- 
pared sample  on  sensitive  scales  in  a  special  butter  or 
cream  test-bottle.  If  a  cream  bottle  is  used,  4.5  grams  of 
butter  should  be  taken.  It  is  advisable  to  warm  the 
neck  of  the  test-bottle  with  dry  heat  so  that  the  butter 
will  slide  into  the  bottle. 


254  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

3.  Add  about  13.5  c.c.  water  when  4.5  grams  butter 
are  used.  The  temperature  of  this  water  should  be  100° 
to  120°  F.  so  as  to  melt  the  fat. 

4.  Add  sufficient  acid  to  give  the  solution  a  very 
light  shade  of  brown  color,  as  there  is  very  little  solids 
not  fat,  to  cause  a  change  in  color. 

The  remaining  steps  are  the  same  as  for  testing  cream. 
It  must  be  remembered,  when  reading  the  test,  that  if  it 
has  been  made  in  a  9-gram  cream  bottle  and  4.5  grams  of 
butter  were  used,  the  reading  must  be  multiplied  by  2. 

MOISTURE   TEST    OF   BUTTER 

The  amount  of  moisture  in  butter  is  important  only 
in  the  final  product.  It  is  not  of  special  concern  in 
the  whole  milk,  cream,  and  the  like.  Inasmuch  as  the 
moisture  test  is  simple  and  as  heretofore  the  fat  test  of 
butter  has  been  somewhat  difficult  of  technique  in  the 
hands  of  the  layman,  the  moisture  has  been  the  constituent 
controlled  by  law. 

229.  Sampling.  —  The  sampling  of  butter  for  moisture 
tests  should  be  carried  out  as  outlined  above  for  "sampling 
butter"  for  the  milk-fat  determination  (par.  227).  In 
this  test  also  it  is  very  essential  that  the  sampling  be 
made  properly,  for  the  moisture  in  butter  is  variable. 
According  to  researches  by  Guthrie  and  Ross  ^  of  fifty- 
one  packages,  nine,  or  17.6  per  cent,  showed  a  differ- 
ence of  1  per  cent  or  more  of  moisture  in  adjacent 
samples,  and  in  eleven  packages  or  21.6  per  cent  there  was 
a  difference  of  1  per  cent  or  more  between  the  lowest 
and   the   highest   moisture    tests.      Lee,    Hepburn,  and 

1  Guthrie.  E.  S.,  and  Ross,  H.  E.,  Distribution  of  Moisture 
and  Salt  in  Butter,  Cornell  Univ.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  336,  p. 
21,  1913. 


TESTING  255 

Barnhart^  found  that  there  is  a  variation  in  the  moisture- 
content,  ranging  from  0.1  to  1.0  per  cent,  between  differ- 
ent samples  representing  the  same  butter.  The  average 
variation  was  about  0.5  of  one  per  cent.  This  serves 
to  show  that  the  operator  should  be  careful  to  take  many 
portions  in  securing  a  sample. 

230.  Testing.  —  The  following  are  steps  in  testing 
butter  for  moisture : 

1.  This  is  the  same  as  step  1  in  testing  butter  for  milk- 
fat,  par.  228. 

2.  Weigh  the  desired  amount  of  butter  from  this 
prepared  sample  into  a  special  cup  that  has  been  thor- 
oughly dried.  The  usual  quantities  are  10  or  20  grams. 
Under  the  average  conditions,  it  is  best  to  weigh  10  grams 
in  the  light  aluminum  cup  which  is  about  2J  inches  high 
by  about  2\  inches  in  diameter  at  the  top.  Such  a  cup 
heats  and  c<x)ls  quickly.  The  best  scale  for  the  creamery 
is  the  moisture-test  torsion  balance. 

3.  Place  the  cup  in  an  oven,  such  as  a  hot  water  or 
electric  oven,  or  put  it  on  an  asbestos  pad  over  an  alcohol 
or  gas  flame,  or  hold  it  over  a  low  naked  flame.  In  the 
average  creamery,  a  low  flame  in  an  alcohol  burner  is  the 
most  satisfactory.  This  flame  may  be  naked  or  an 
asbestos  pad  may  be  used,  as  conditions  warrant.  It  is 
best  not  to  shake  the  sample  very  much  when  being  heated. 
If  shaken  too  much,  it  is  more  likely  to  effervesce  or  bubble 
over  than  when  shaken  only  occasionally. 

4.  The  end  point  has  been  reached  in  the  heating  pro- 
cess when  the  color  becomes  chocolate  brown.  The  casein 
on  the  surface  should  be  in  small  portions  at  this  stage  and 

1  Lee,  Carl  E.,  Hepburn,  N.  W.,  Barnhart,  Jesse  M.,  A 
Study  of  Factors  Influencing  the  Composition  of  Butter,  Univ. 
111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  137,  p.  314,  1909. 


256  THE  BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

when  heated  over  a  low  flame  no  bubbles  of  moisture  and 
air  should  leave  the  fat.  The  determination  of  the  com- 
pletion of  the  drying  process  is  not  difficult  and  a  butter- 
maker  may  soon  learn  by  experience  to  recognize  it. 

5.  Put  the  cup  in  a  desiccator  or  set  it  on  a  dry  place 
until  the  cup  and  fat  have  cooled.  In  the  average 
creamery  where  there  is  no  desiccator,  the  cup  should  be 
put  on  a  dry  shelf  and  a  flat  piece  of  paper  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  cup.  This  paper  should  be  sufficiently  wide 
completely  to  cover  the  cup  and  thus  practically  prevent 
any  moisture  of  the  air  from  getting  into  the  cup.  A  thin 
aluminum  cup  will  cool  in  about  five  minutes.  It  should 
be  weighed  soon  after  cooling,  unless  it  is  in  a  desiccator 
where  the  air  is  thoroughly  dry.  The  reasons  why  the 
fat  and  cup  must  be  cooled  are  that  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  butter  and  cup  increases  as  the  temperature  drops, 
and  thus  they  become  heavier.  A  current  of  warm  air  also 
goes  up  from  the  hot  cup  and  butter,  which  causes  them 
to  weigh  lighter  than  when  they  are  cool  and  no  current 
of  air  rising  from  them.  When  running  a  preliminary 
churn  test,  the  final  reading  may  be  obtained  when 
the  cup  and  butter  are  hot.  When  this  is  done,  a 
correction  must  be  made.  In  case  a  light  aluminum  cup 
is  used,  the  reading  is  likely  to  be  .3  per  cent  higher  when 
the  sample  is  hot  than  when  it  is  cool.  Thus  a  moisture 
test  that  would  read  14.5  per  cent  when  just  taken  from 
the  flame  would  read  14.2  per  cent  when  cool.  This  latter 
reading  would  be  the  correct  one.  The  reading  of  the 
preliminary  churn  test  when  hot  saves  time,  and  it  is 
sufficiently  accurate  to  be  satisfactory  at  this  stage  of  the 
manufacture  of  butter.  If  a  heavier  cup  is  used,  the 
butter-maker  may  ascertain  by  a  little  experimental  work 
what  the  correction  should  be. 


TESTING  257 

6.  Weigh  the  dried  butter.  If  the  scales  are  graduated 
to  read  the  results  directl}^  in  percentage,  it  is  easy  to 
obtain  the  final  reading.  If  the  scales  are  not  so 
graduated,  computation  must  be  made. 

7.  Record  the  results. 

SALT   TEST   OF   BUTTER 

The  salt  test  is  not  used  in  many  creameries.  How- 
ever, in  the  largest  and  best  organized  ones  it  is  con- 
stantly employed,  for  the  butter-maker  wishes  to  obtain  a 
uniform  salt-content  from  churning  to  churning  and  also 
desires  to  make  the  over-run  as  large  as  possible. 

231.  Sampling.  —  The  same  precaution  should  be 
observed  in  sampling  for  the  salt  test  as  in  the  fat  or  the 
moisture  test.  The  variation  of  salt  within  a  single 
package  of  butter  is  greater  than  many  persons  realize. 
According  to  Lee,  Hepburn,  and  Barnhart,^  in  the  two 
churnings  referred  to  above,  when  there  were  ten  samples 
taken  in  churn  K,  the  variation  in  salt  was  1.56  to  2.06 
per  cent,  and  in  churn  B,  1.97  to  2.68  per  cent.  Guthrie 
and  Ross  ^  report  that  in  36.2  per  cent  of  the  fifty-one 
packages  examined  there  was  a  difference  of  .2  per  cent 
salt  in  adjacent  samples,  and  46.8  per  cent  of  the  packages 
contained  a  diflPerence  of  .2  per  cent  salt  between  the 
lowest  and  the  highest  tests.  When  moisture  tests  are 
made,  the  same  sample  may  be  used  for  the  salt  deter- 
mination. If  a  moisture  test  has  not  been  made,  the 
sample  should  be  taken  as  described  under  "  sampling 
butter,"  par.  227. 

1  Lee,  Carl  E.,  Hepburn,  N.  W.,  and  Barnhart,  Jesse  M., 
Univ.  of  111.  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  137,  p.  322,  1909. 

2  Guthrie,  E.  S.,  and  Ross,  H.  E.,  Distribution  of  Moisture 
and  Salt  in  Butter,  Cornell  Univ.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bui.  336,  p.  21, 
1913. 


258  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

232.  Testing.  —  The  following  are  steps  in  testing 
butter  for  salt :  ^ 

1.  Prepare  the  sample  as  directed  under  ''testing 
butter,"  par.  228,  if  no  moisture  test  has  been  made. 

2.  Weigh  10  grams  of  butter  from  the  prepared  sample 
or  use  that  remaining  after  driving  off  the  moisture.  This 
latter  sample  must  have  weighed  10  grams  if  the  following 
directions  are  followed. 

3.  Obtain  water  at  100°  to  140°  F.  in  a  300  c.c.  measure. 
The  purpose  of  the  addition  of  water  is  to  secure  all  the 
salt  of  the  butter  in  solution.  From  the  standpoint  of 
Troy's  method  and  of  quick  reading,  it  is  essential  to  em- 
ploy exactly  300  c.c.  of  water. 

4.  Remove  the  butter  from  the  weighing  or  moisture 
cup  to  the  container,  in  which  the  butter  and  water  may 
be  thoroughly  mixed.  A  500  c.c.  glass  bottle  with  a 
ground  glass  stopper  is  very  satisfactory  for  this  purpose. 
A  rubber  policeman  is  convenient  in  removing  the  butter 
from  the  cup. 

5.  Pour  a  portion  of  the  warm  water  secured  in  step 
3  into  the  weighing  cup  in  order  to  melt  some  of  the 
fat  remaining  from  step  4.  Put  this  into  the  container 
with  the  butter,  and  continue  pouring  the  warm  water 
into  the  cup  and  flushing  out  the  butter  until  all  is 
loosened  from  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  cup.  Usually 
the  rubber  policeman  is  most  convenient  at  this  stage  of 
the  process,  for  friction  is  necessary  to  loosen  some  of 
the  fat. 

6.  After  the  10  grams  of  butter,  or  that  remaining  from 
a  10-gram  moisture  sample,  and  the  300  c.c.  of  water  are 
in  the  container,  the  contents  must  be  thoroughly  shaken 

1  Troy,  H.  C,  Method  developed  and  used  by  Troy  in  the 
testing  laboratories  at  Cornell  University. 


TESTING  259 

to  distribute  the  salt  throughout  the  solution.  The 
agitation  should  continue  about  one  minute. 

7.  Allow  the  sample  to  stand  until  the  fat  rises  to  the 
surface.     This  may  require  two  to  five  minutes. 

8.  With  a  17.6  c.c.  Babcock  pipette,  draw  a  pipetteful 
of  the  clear  liquid  and  put  it  in  a  titration  container  which 
may  preferably  be  a  white  cup  or  an  Erlenmeyer  flask. 

9.  Add  three  or  four  drops  of  the  potassium  chromate 
(K2Cr04)  which  acts  as  an  indicator. 

10.  Titrate  this  solution  with  tenth-normal  silver 
nitrate  (AgNOa)  until  a  very  light  brown  color  appears. 
It  should  be  remembered  that  the  solution  must  be 
agitated  constantly  during  titration.  It  must  also  be 
kept  in  mind  that  the  first  permanent  brownish  color  is 
the  end  point. 

11.  In  obtaining  the  final  reading,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  each  cubic  centimeter  of  tenth-normal  silver 
nitrate  that  is  titrated  into  the  salt  solution  is  equal  to 

1  per  cent  salt. 

12.  Record  the  results. 

233.  Notes  on  the  chemistry  of  the  salt  test.  —  The 
first  reaction  in  this  test  is  as  follows :  AgNOa  (silver 
nitrate)  +  NaCl  (sodium  chloride,  salt)  =  AgCl  (silver 
chloride)  +  NaNOa  (sodium  nitrate).  When  all  the  chlo- 
rine from  the  salt  in  the  butter  solution  has  been  satisfied 
and  an  excess  of  silver  nitrate  is  added,  another  chemical 
reaction  occurs  between  the  silver  nitrate  and  the  potas- 
sium chromate,  which  is  used  as  an  indicator.  This 
reaction  is  as  follows :  2  AgNOa  (silver  nitrate)  +  K2Cr04 
(potassium    chromate)  =  Ag2Cr04    (silver    chromate)  -f- 

2  KNOa  (potassium  nitrate).  The  silver  chromate  is  the 
substance  that  gives  the  reddish  brown  color  indicating 
that  all  the  salt  is  neutralized. 


260  THE  BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

The  reading  may  be  calculated  as  follows:  The  molecular 
weight  of  silver  nitrate  (AgNOs)  is  170;  the  molecular 
weight  of  sodium  chloride  is  58.5.  Applying  the  rule 
that  the  molecular  weight  of  one  substance  is  to  the  molec- 
ular weight  of  another  as  the  actual  weight  of  the  first 
substance  is  to  the  actual  weight  of  the  second  when  the 
molecules  are  chemically  equal,  the  result  is  as  follows: 
170  (molecular  wt.,  AgNOa)  :  58.5  (molecular  wt., 
NaCl)  :  :  .017  :  X.  There  are  .017  gram  AgNOg  in 
1  c.c.  of  the  N/10  solution.  In  the  calculation,  X  is 
equal  to  .00585  gram,  which  is  the  amount  of  salt  that 
1  c.c.  of  N/lO  silver  nitrate  solution  will  neutralize.  In 
this  determination,  10  grams  of  butter  were  put  in  300  c.c. 
of  water.  A  Babcock  pipetteful  of  this  solution  w^as  ti- 
trated. This  pipette  delivers  17.5  c.c.  of  liquid.  Assuming 
that  in  the  titration  4  c.c.  of  X/10  silver  nitrate  was  used 
to  neutralize  the  salt,  then  .00585  gram  X  4  c.c.  =  .0234 
gram  of  salt  in  one  pipetteful  of  the  solution.  The  quan- 
tity of  salt  in  the  300  c.c.  solution  is  reckoned  as  follows : 
300  -^  17.5  c.c,  the  amount  in  one  pipetteful,  =  17.14 
pipettefuls  ;  17.14  X  .0234  =  .4  gram  of  salt  in  the  300  c.c. 
of  solution.  This  means  that  the  10  grams  of  butter 
contained  .4  gram  of  salt,  .4  -^  10  =  .04  of  a  gram.  This 
.04  gram  X  100  =  4.00  per  cent  salt.  Thus  it  is  seen 
that  when  10  grams  of  butter  are  melted  in  300  c.c.  of 
water  and  a  Babcock  pipetteful  is  used  for  titration,  the 
final  reading  may  be  obtained  without  any  calculation. 
Each  cubic  centimeter  of  the  N/lO  silver  nitrate  used 
is  equal  to  1  per  cent  salt. 

ACIDITY   TEST   OF   MILK   OR   CREAM 

The  acidity  of  milk  products  is  formed  largely  by  lactic 
acid.     This  acidity  is  a  fairly  good  criterion  of  measure  of 


TESTING  261 

the  number  of  bacteria  in  dairy  products,  and  thus  of 
their  quahties.  Often  when  there  is  a  question  whether 
certain  milk  or  cream  should  be  accepted  by  a  creamery, 
the  quick  determination  of  the  acidity  will  settle  the  prob- 
lem. The  acidity  test  in  the  manufacture  of  butter  is 
used  only  on  milk  and  cream. 

234.  Sampling.  —  The  ordinary  precautions  in  sampling 
milk  or  cream  should  be  observed  in  obtaining  samples  for 
an  acidity  test. 

235.  Testing.  —  Following  are  steps  in  testing  milk  or 
cream  for  acidity. 

1.  Measure  a  Babcock  pipetteful  of  milk  or  cream  into 
a  titration  cup  or  Erlenmeyer  flask,  add  about  15  or  20 
c.c.  of  water.  In  case  of  cream,  use  water  at  a  tem- 
perature of  100°  to  120°  F.  to  make  the  cream  more  fluid. 

2.  Add  two  or  three  drops  of  phenolphthalein.  This  is 
an  indicator  colorless  in  an  acid  solution  and  pink  when 
the  solution  is  alkaline. 

3.  Titrate  with  X/lO  alkaline  solution  until  a  pink 
color  remains.  Care  must  be  observed  in  titrating,  for 
it  is  easy  to  go  past  the  end  point. 

4.  Read  by  dividing  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters 
of  N/lO  alkaline  solution  required  to  neutralize  the  acid 
in  the  milk  or  cream  by  2.  Then  each  cubic  centimeter  of 
the  quotient  is  equal  to  .1  per  cent.  Very  often  a  special 
pipette  is  used  which  has  a  capacity  of  one-half  of  the  Bab- 
cock pipette.  In  such  case  the  reading  is  obtained  directly. 
Each  cubic  centimeter  is  equal  to  .1  per  cent  acid. 

236.  Notes  on  the  chemistry  of  acidity. — The  chemical 
reactions  of  acidity  are  clearly  explained  by  Ross  :  ^  "It 
is  a  chemical  fact  that  equal  volumes  of  acids  and  alkalies 
of  the  same  chemical  strength  will  exactly  neutralize  one 

1  Ross,  H.  E.,  A  Dairy  Laboratory  Guide,  p.  44,  1914. 


262  THE   BOOK   OF   BUTTER 

another.  In  1  c.c.  of  a  normal  solution  of  lactic  acid 
there  is  .09  gram  of  lactic  acid.  According  to  the  above 
rule  1  c.c.  of  any  normal  alkali  solution  would  just 
neutralize  .09  gram  of  lactic  acid. 

"  In  actual  practice  a  solution  weaker  than  a  normal 
solution  is  usually  employed,  because  a  normal  solution  is 
so  strong  that  any  small  variation  in  the  amount  used 
makes  a  big  variation  in  results.  A  common  solution  used 
is  Tu  normal  (expressed  X/lO).  One  c.  c.  of  X/10  alkali 
solution  would  neutralize  .009  gram  of  lactic  acid.  An 
example  will  illustrate  how  the  percentage  of  acid  in 
milk  is  calculated.  Suppose  it  took  6  c.c.  of  X/lO  alkali 
solution  to  neutralize  the  acid  in  20  grams  of  milk.  What 
is  the  per  cent  of  acid?  One  c.c.  of  X/lO  alkali  will 
neutralize  .009  gram  of  lactic  acid.  Six  c.c.  will  neutralize 
6  X  .009  =  .054  gram  of  acid.  .054  -=-  20  =  .0027. 
.0027  X  100  =  .27  per  cent  acid  in  the  milk.  Formulated, 
the  above  example  is  expressed  as  follows : 

^^X  100  =.27%. 

If  the  milk  for  the  acid  test  is  measured  in  cubic  centi- 
meters, it  should  be  reduced  to  grams  by  multiplying 
by  the  specific  gravity  of  milk.  The  acid  is  obtained  in 
terms  of  grams  and  we  cannot  divide  grams  by  cubic  centi- 
meters and  obtain  per  cent." 

Usually  the  milk  or  cream  is  measured,  since  the  acidity 
does  not  have  to  be  determined  exactly.  For  this  reason 
one  Babcock  pipetteful  is  considered  to  be  18  grams,  which 
is  true  of  whole  milk  but  not  quite  accurate  in  case  of  cream. 
The  computation  is  as  follows :  Suppose  that  it  took  8 
c.c.  of  X/10  alkali  solution  to  neutralize  the  acidity  in 
one   pipetteful   or   approximately    18   grams   of   cream. 


TESTING  263 

.009  X  8 

— — X  100  =  .4  per  cent  acid  in  the  cream.     This 

can  be  obtained  quickly  by  dividing  the  amount  of  alkali 
by  the  arbitrary  number  2  and  by  reading  the  quotient 
in  tenths  as  follows ;  8  c.c.  -r-  2  =  A  per  cent  acid.  If  9 
grams,  or  only  half  of  18  grams,  of  cream  were  used,  the 
result  would  be  obtained  directly  by  reading  each  cubic 
centimeter  of  alkali  as  .1  per  cent.  In  this  way,  the 
reading  is  rapid,  with  only  a  little  mental  calculation. 

GENERAL   NOTES    OF   TESTING 

The  most  important  factor  in  testing  is  accuracy.  All 
chemistry  operations,  of  which  testing  dairy  products  is 
one,  demand  carefulness. 

237.  System.  —  One  of  the  essential  considerations 
in  running  a  test  is  system.  All  sample  bottles  should  be 
plainly  labeled.  When  all  the  samples  are  obtained,  each 
should  be  arranged  in  consecutive  order.  Then  the  test- 
bottles  should  be  clearly  marked  and  arranged  in  order. 
When  this  is  done,  if  a  mistake  is  made,  such  as  forgetting 
to  label  a  test-bottle,  its  position  would  be  sufficient  to 
identify  it.  There  should  be  a  special  place  for  the  re- 
cording of  each  test.  A  student  in  the  laboratory  can  plan 
for  a  systematic  recording  of  the  tests.  It  might  be 
possible  for  him  to  prepare  his  notebook  when  the  cen- 
trifuge is  running.  In  a  creamery  there  should  be  special 
printed  sheets  for  such  records.  The  above  suggestions 
will  aid  in  increasing  the  speed  as  well  as  the  accuracy  of 
the  testing  operation. 

238.  Conveniences  for  testing.  —  A  few  conveniences 
might  be  used  to  increase  the  speed  of  testing,  such  as 
the  following:  (1)  A  warming  tank  with  a  rack  in  which 
to  place   samples  that   should   be   heated   before   being 


264  THE   BOOK  OF  BUTTER 

tested.  (2)  A  prepared  solution  for  cleaning  the  test- 
bottles.  This  may  be  made  as  follows  :  Mix  hot  water, 
*' gold-dust"  or  other  good  glass  cleaner,  and  lye  to 
destroy  the  casein  formation  quickly.  This  solution 
may  be  used  several  weeks  before  it  is  discarded.  The 
container  of  the  cleaning  solution  should  be  sufficiently 
large  to  admit  a  test-bottle  rack,  and  if  possible  means 
should  be  provided  to  heat  it.  (3)  Test-bottle  racks  that 
are  easily  handled  and  sufficiently  large  to  hold  the  same 
number  of  bottles  that  the  centrifuge  will  contain.  (4) 
Handy  acid  measures,  such  as  the  little  glass  dipper  which 
is  especially  convenient  for  measuring  acid  into  cream 
test-bottles  because  of  their  large  necks,  or  the  bottle 
with  the  measure  on  the  side  that  is  filled  by  tipping  the 
bottle.  This  latter  measure  may  be  used  easily  in  filling 
milk  or  cream  test-bottles.  (5)  A  brass  or  a  copper 
collar  for  each  composite  sample  bottle  on  which  is  placed 
the  patron's  number.  The  metal  should  be  fairly  thin 
and  soldered  around  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  This  is  easy 
and  simple,  and  a  certain  identification  of  the  sample. 
For  daily  cream  samples  small  jars  with  aluminum  tops 
are  convenient.  The  patron's  number  may  be  placed 
easily  on  these  tops  and  later  the  numbers  may  be  readily 
erased.  (6)  A  brass  or  copper  collar  for  each  test-bottle 
on  which  is  stamped  a  number.  This  saves  practically  all 
the  time  required  to  place  the  sample  or  patron's  number 
on  each  test-bottle.  The  test-record  sheet  should  have  a 
column  for  the  patrons'  numbers  and  one  for  those  of  the 
test-bottles.  The  time  saved  would  be  the  difference 
between  that  required  to  erase  the  old  numbers  on  the  test- 
bottles  and  in  placing  the  new  numbers  on  them ;  and  in 
simply  writing  the  numbers  of  the  bottles  opposite  those 
of  the  samples  on  the  record  sheets. 


TESTING  265 

239.  Storch  test.  —  Storch  found  that  when  milk  is 
heated  to  79°  C.  (174°  F.),  it  does  not  have  power  to 
reduce  peroxides.  His  test  will  distinguish  between  milk 
that  has  been  heated  to  the  above  temperature  and  raw 
or  unheated  milk.  The  reagents  employed  are  hydrogen 
peroxide  or  calcium  peroxide  and  paraphenylenediamine 
hydrochloride.  When  making  the  test,  place  about  5  c.c. 
of  the  milk  or  cream  in  a  test-tube,  add  from  the  point  of 
a  small  spatula  or  a  knife,  some  paraphenylenediamine 
hydrochloride  about  the  size  of  a  kernel  of  wheat,  and  an 
equal  amount  of  one  of  the  peroxides.  After  thorough 
shaking,  the  mixture  will  turn  a  blue  color  if  the  milk  or 
cream  has  not  been  heated.  If  too  much  peroxide  is 
used,  the  blue  color  will  gradually  become  pink. 

Recently,  this  test  has  been  of  practical  importance  in 
testing  butter  to  determine  whether  the  cream  was  heated 
to  174°  F.  or  above  in  the  pasteurizing  process.  When 
operating  this  test,  fill  a  test-tube  with  butter  and  hold 
it  in  water  at  120  to  130°  F.  until  the  fat  melts  and  the 
casein  settles  to  the  bottom.  Decant  off  the  fat  and  some 
water,  in  so  far  as  possible,  and  then  test  the  residue  or 
casein  as  directed  for  milk  or  cream. 


APPENDIX 

Neutralizing  Acidity  in  Cream 

Table  XXXIV  —  Composition  of  Some  Limes 


No. 

Inert 

Calcium 

Magnesium 

Ingredients 

Moisture 

Oxide 

Oxide 

Total 

1 

1.04 

.r  11.45 

88.60 

0 

101.09 

2 

1.61 

ij    7.00 

58.20 

33.54 

100.35 

3 

1.46 

.r  14 .  00 

53 .  65 

30.86 

99.97 

4  ■ 

1.61 

ij    3.00 

63 .  40 

31.36 

99.37 

5 

1.82 

i/    4.75 

93.40 

0 

99.97 

X  Known  commercially  as  hydrated  lime. 
y  Known  commercially  as  quick  lime. 

Explanation  of  reaction  and  application.  —  All  cream  neu- 
tralizing agents  in  general  react  the  same.  The  neutralizer 
combines  with  the  lactic  acid  in  the  cream,  forming  a  lactate. 
Calcium  and  magnesium,  which  are  preferred  in  the  United 
States,  are  bivalent  elements  and  unite  with  the  lactic  acid  as 
follows: 


1  molecule 

calcium 

oxide 


2  molecules 
lactic  acid 

CbH3 

I 

H-C-O-H 

I 


L  ^hJ-o-c=o 


I 

H-C-O-H 

I 

c-m 


1  molecule  1  molecule 

water  calcium  lactate 

C  =  H3 

I 
H-C-O-H 

I 
^0-C  =  0 

^o-c=o 

I 

H-C-O-H 

I 
C  =  H., 


=  H2  =  0H-Ca< 


267 


268  APPENDIX 

It  should  be  noted  that  one  molecule  of  lime  combines  with 
two  molecules  of  lactic  acid.  The  molecular  weight  of  calcium 
lime  (CaO)  is  56  + ,  while  that  of  lactic  acid  is  90  + .  Inasmuch 
as  the  molecular  reaction  calls  for  a  1  to  2  combination,  it  will 
take  one-half  of  56  or  28  pounds  of  CaO  to  neutralize  90  pounds 
of  lactic  acid.  One  pound  of  CaO,  therefore,  will  neutralize  3.21 
pounds  of  lactic  acid;  (90  -^  28  =  3.21).  In  order  to  find  how 
much  lime  will  be  needed  to  neutralize  one  pound  of  lactic  acid, 
divide  28  pounds  by  90  pounds.  The  quotient  is  .311  pounds; 
(28  -^  90  =  .311).  Hence,  it  will  take  .311  pounds  of  CaO  to 
neutralize  one  pound  of  lactic  acid.  If  a -15  per  cent  mixture 
of  lime  and  water  is  employed,  it  will  take  2.074  pounds  of  CaO 
(.311  pounds  4-  15  per  cent  =  2.074  pounds). 

When  determining  the  amount  of  lime  to  put  in  cream,  the 
procedure  is  as  follows:  Problem — 500  pounds  of  cream  with  an 
acidity  of  .5  per  cent  is  to  be  neutralized  or  standardized  to  an 
acidity  of  .3  per  cent.  Solution — .6  per  cent  —  .3  per  cent  = 
.3  per  cent,  the  amount  of  lactic  acid  to  be  reduced.  500  pounds 
of  cream  X  .3  per  cent  =1.50  pound  of  lactic  acid  to  be  neu- 
tralized. It  requires  2.074  pounds  of  15  per  cent  mixture  of 
lime,  as  stated  above,  to  neutralize  1  pound  of  lactic  acid. 
Therefore,  it  will  take  2.074  X  1.5  or  3.11  pounds  of  the  15 
per  cent  lime  mixture  to  reduce  the  acidity  of  the  500  pounds 
of  cream  from  .6  to  .3  per  cent.  In  order  to  facilitate  the  cal- 
culation of  the  amount  of  lime  mixture  to  put  in  the  cream, 
Table  XXXV  has  been  prepared. 

Preparation  of  lime  mixture.  —  After  heating  85  pounds  of 
water  to  the  boiling  point,  or  as  near  as  possible,  add  15  pounds 
of  quick  lime  in  small  installments,  stirring  constantly.  Note 
that  the  lime  should  be  put  into  the  water  and  not  the  water 
poured  into  the  lime.  There  is  also  an  important  point  in  heating 
the  water.  The  purpose  of  raising  the  temperature  to  a  high 
degree  is  to  eliminate  as  much  as  possible  of  the  carbon  dioxide 
(CO2)  from  the  water.  If  it  is  present  after  the  lime  is  added, 
calcium  carbonate  is  formed  (CaO  +  CO2  =  CaCOa).  This 
compound  is  very  insoluble  and  is  likely  to  go  clear  through  the 


APPENDIX  269 

pasteurizing,  churning,  and  working  processes  and  give  the 
butter  a  limy  flavor. 

If  the  Hme  is  high  grade,  a  milk-hke  mixture  should  result, 
one  in  which  the  Ca(0H)2  [CaO  +  H2O  =  Ca(0H)2]  should  be 
slow  in  setthng  out.  A  simple  test  to  determine  whether  the 
lime  mixture  is  satisfactory  is  to  dip  a  smooth  butter-ladle  in  it 
and  observe  how  the  mixture  flows  off.  Very  little  should  ad- 
here to  the  ladle.  If  large  particles  of  lime  are  left  on  the  ladle, 
a  proper  neutralization  cannot  be  expected.  In  fact,  such  con- 
dition of  the  mixture  not  only  destroys  its  neutralizing  qualities 
but  the  coarse  particles  may  be  carried  through  to  the  butter 
and  a  so-called  neutralizer  flavor  may  be  detected.  When  the 
most  careful  methods  of  neutralization  are  employed,  the  lime 
mixture  is  titrated  with  a  standard  acid  solution  to  determine 
its  strength. 

Container.  —  The  container  for  the  lime  mixture  should  not 
be  of  metal,  for  the  lime  will  unite  with  metals  fonning  metallic 
compounds  wliich  may  be  carried  over  to  the  butter.  Wooden 
receptacles  are  often  used  in  careful  creameries  and  the  common 
tin  milk-can  answers  the  purpose  in  many  places  as  it  is  more 
conveniently  obtained.  A  most  essential  consideration  in  han- 
dling the  lime  mixture  is  good  agitation.  Therefore,  in  the 
larger  creameries,  a  mechanical  agitator  should  be  a  part  of  the 
container.    In  the  smaller  plants  a  wooden  paddle  suflEices. 

Steps  in  neutralizing.  —  1 .  Choose  a  good  neutralizing  agent. 
Quick  lime  is  preferred  in  America.  Usually  it  contains  both 
calcium  and  magnesium  oxide. 

2.  Prepare  the  mixture  as  given  in  paragraph  above.  This 
lime  mixture  does  not  need  to  be  made  daily. 

3.  Hold  the  mixture  in  a  wooden  container  and  keep  it  covered 
to  prevent  rapid  evaporation  and  reception  of  dust. 

4.  Always  stir  the  mixture  thoroughly  before  using. 

When  the  cream  is  going  through  the  flash  pasteurizer. 

5.  If  the  cream  is  in  a  forewarmer  which  holds  the  whole 
batch  before  pasteurization,  warm  it  to  85  or  90°  F.,  for  this 


270  APPENDIX 

temperature  is  near  the  melting  point  of  the  fat  and  is  in  a 
much  better  condition  to  be  sampled  as  well  as  to  receive  the 
neutralizer. 

6.  After  thorough  agitation,  sample  and  run  a  test  for  acidity. 

7.  Compute  the  amount  of  lime  mixture  necessary  to  reduce 
the  acidity  to  the  desired  point.  If  the  cream  is  to  be  ripened, 
the  acid  content  should  be  brought  to  .2  per  cent.  If  unripened, 
.3  per  cent  is  preferable.  An  operator  must  always  be  on  his 
guard  to  prevent  over  neutralization. 

8.  Weigh  or  measure  out  the  proper  amount  of  neutralizer 
and  dilute  it  with  about  an  equal  volume  of  water.  If  the  mix- 
ture is  not  weakened  by  dilution,  it  may  react  on  the  fat  with 
which  it  comes  in  contact  when  first  placed  in  the  forewarmer, 
and  cause  a  soapy  flavor,  also  an  excess  of  lime  will  precipitate 
out  the  curd  of  the  cream  when  heated  to  a  high  degree. 

9.  Pour  this  diluted  mixture  into  the  cream  through  a  strainer, 
being  careful  to  distribute  it  uniformly  throughout  the  fore- 
warmer. 

10.  In  case  the  cream  is  fed  continually,  to  the  pasteurizer, 
the  diluted  neutrahzer  may  be  conducted  into  the  cream  as  it 
goes  to  the  pasteurizer.  The  operator  must  be  watchful  not 
to  overdose  it  for  at  best  he  must  guess  on  the  amount  to 
put  in. 

11.  In  unripened  cream  a  final  titration  of  the  cream  should 
be  made  just  before  churning  and  after  there  has  been  sufficient 
time  for  the  chemical  reaction  to  be  completed,  which  is  usually 
several  hours. 

12.  When  the  cream  is  ripened,  it  should  be  titrated  for 
acidity  just  before  the  starter  is  added,  even  though  there  has 
not  been  sufficient  time  for  a  complete  chemical  reaction.  The 
purpose  of  steps  11  and  12  is  to  keep  the  operator  informed. 

When  the  cream  is  pasteurized  in  a  vat. 

5.  Warm  the  cream  to  85  or  90^  F.  as  noted  above  in  step  5. 

6.  After  thorough  agitation  test  the  cream  for  acidity. 

7.  Compute  the  amount  of  lime  mixture  necessary  to  reduce 


APPENDIX 


271 


the  acidity  in  the  cream  to  the  desired  point  as  noted  above  in 
step  7. 

8.  Weigh  or  measure  out  the  proper  amount  of  neutralizer  and 
dilute  it  with  about  an  equal  volume  of  water  as  recorded  above 
in  step  8. 

9.  Pour  this  diluted  lime  mixture  into  the  cream  through  a 
strainer,  being  careful  to  distribute  it  uniformly  throughout  the 
vat.  The  coils  should  be  in  motion  to  insure  immediate  mixing 
during  this  stage  of  the  process. 

10.  Test  the  cream  for  acidity  before  churning  and  if  the 
mixture  seems  to  be  weak,  add  an  increased  amount  of  neutralizer 
the  next  time. 


Table  XXXV  — Amount  of  Lime  Mixture  to  Add  to 
Reduce  Acidity  of  Cre.\m  to  0.3% 


Initial  Acidity  of  Cream 

Pounds 

.45 

.50 

.55 

.6 

,65 

.7 

.8 

.9 

1.0 

Cream 

Pounds  of  15%  Lime  Mixture  Needed 

50.     .     . 

.15 

.20 

.26 

.31 

.37 

.41 

.50 

.62 

.72 

100. 

.31 

.41 

.52 

.62 

.73 

.83 

1.03 

1.24 

1.45 

500. 

1.55 

2.07 

2.59 

3.11 

3.62 

4.14 

5.18 

6.22 

7.25 

1,000  . 

3.11 

4.14 

5.18 

6.22 

7.25 

8.29 

10.37 

12.44 

14.51 

1,500  . 

4.66 

6.21 

7.77 

9.33 

10.88 

12.43 

15.55 

18.66 

21.77 

2,000  . 

6.22 

8.3 

10.37 

12.45 

14.51 

16.58 

20.74 

24 .  89 

29.04 

2,500  . 

7.77 

10.35 

12.95 

15.55 

18.14 

20.72 

25.92 

31.10 

36.29 

3,000  . 

9.33 

12.42 

15.54 

18.66 

21.77 

24.89 

31.11 

37 .  33 

43.56 

3,500  . 

10.88 

14.51 

18.14 

21.78 

25.39 

29.01 

36.29 

43.55 

50.81 

4,000  . 

12.44 

16.59 

20.74 

24.89 

29.03 

33.19 

41.48 

49.78 

58.07 

4,500  . 

13.99 

18.65 

23.32 

28.00 

32.65 

37.30 

46.66 

55 .  99 

65.33 

5,000  . 

15.55 

20.74 

25.92 

31.11 

36 .  29 

41.48 

51.85 

62.22 

72.59 

6,000  . 

18.66 

24.89 

31.11 

37 .  33 

43.55 

49.78 

62.22 

74.67 

87.11 

7,000  . 

21.77 

29.03 

.36.29 

43.55 

50.81 

58.08 

72.59 

86.11 

101.63 

272 


APPENDIX 


Dairy  Statistics 

The  foUowdng  tables  have  been  taken  from  Pirtle  i  without 
change  or  by  extraction  of  certain  butter  data  or  by  combining 
tables  or  parts  thereof. 

Table  XXXVI  —  Average  Yield  of  Milk  a  Year  of  Milk 
Cows  IN  Various  Countries 

(\^\Rious  Sources) 


Average 

Average 

Yield  of 

Yield  of 

Country 

\ear 

Milk 
Pounds 

Country 

Year 

Milk 
Pounds 

Netherlands  .     . 

1902 

7,585 

Norway 

1910 

3.680 

Switzerland    .     . 

1914 

6,950 

Sweden . 

1911 

3,600 

United  Kingdom 

1914 

5,934 

Japan    .     . 

1918 

3,339 

Denmark  .     .     . 

1914 

5,666 

Hungary    . 

1914 

2,932 

Germany  . 

1912 

4,350 

Australia    . 

1916 

2,719 

Canada 

1911 

3,779 

Italy      .     . 

1914 

2,279 

United  States     . 

1917 

3,716 

Chile      .     . 

1916 

1,520 

United  States      . 

1920 

3,627 

Siberia  .     . 

1916 

1,192 

1  Pirtle,  T.  R.,  A  Handbook  of  Dairy  Statistics,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri. 
1922. 


B.  A.  I. 


APPENDIX 


273 


Table  XXXVII  —  Average  per  Capita  Consumption  of 
Butter  in  Various  Countries  Each  Year 

(Numerous  Authorities) 


Butter 

Butter 

Con- 

Con- 

Country 

Year 

sumed 
Pounds 

Country 

Year 

sumed 
Pounds 

Canada      .     .     . 

1911 

27.7 

Netherlands 

1917 

16.8 

Australia  . 

1913 

25.6 

Sweden 

1917 

16.5 

New  Zealand 

1914 

21.7 

Germany    . 

1913 

14.7 

Denmark  .     .     . 

1914 

19.0 

Norway 

1906 

14.0 

United  States     . 

1909 

17.5 

Switzerland 

1914 

12.1 

United  States      . 

1919 

15.5 

Italy      .     . 

1913 

2.5 

United  Kingdom 

1914 

17.0 

Argentina  ^ 

1913 

1.8 

1  Factory  butter  only. 

Table  XXXVIII  —  Production  and  Exportation  of  Butter 
FOR  Various  Countries 

(Numerous  Authorities) 


Country 


United  States       .     .     .     . 
United  States       .     .     .     . 

Germany 

Russia  (including  Siberia) 

France  

Denmark 

Australia 

Canada  

United  Kingdom 

Netherlands 

Italy 

New  Zealand 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Argentina 

Union  of  South  Africa  .     . 


Production 

Exports 

\ear 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1909 

1,621,000,000 

5,981,000 

1919 

1,648,505,382 

34,556,485 

1913 

8M, 840,000 

602,000 

1913 

326,253,000 

172,003,000 

1914 

286,598,000 

44,619,000 

1914 

257,484,000 

210,084,000 

1916 

182,469,000 

16,722,000 

1911 

201,808,000 

3,142,000 

1908 

1  177,000,000 

1,125,000 

1912 

147,835,000 

86,307,000 

1914 

2  110,000,000 

9,310,000 

1916 

63,273,000 

40,167,000 

1916 

2  62,135,000 

28,704,000 

1916 

37,000,000 

2,646 

1914 

20,518,000 

7,676,000 

1918 

15,980,000 

(') 

Factory  butter  ouly,  for  Ireland. 
R 


Factory  butter  only. 


3  None. 


274 


APPENDIX 


Table  XXXIX  —  Approximate  Amount  of  AIilk  Solids  in 
Dairy  Products 

(Various  Authorities) 


Product 


Milk: 

Whole  milk 

Skim  milk 

Condensed,  sweetened  (legal)  ' 

Condensed  and  evaporated,  not  sweetened  (legal) 

Condensed  and  evaporated  skim  milk,  sweetened  (legal) 

Powder: 

Whole  milk  (legal) 

Skim  milk  (legal) 

Cream 

Malted  (714  per  cent  fat) 

Buttermilk 

Sugar 

Chocolate 

Whey 

Buttermilk 

Cream : 

20  per  cent  fat 

40  per  cent  fat 

Butter,  S2  per  cent  fat 

Cheese: 

Cheddar  (milk  with  4  per  cent  fat) 

Cottage 

Ice  cream: 

10  per  cent  fat 

14  per  cent  fat 


Milk  Solids 
(Including 

Fat) 
Per  Cent 


13.0 
9.2 
28.0 
25.5 
28.0 

295.0 
95.0 
95.0 
25.0 
95.0 
72.7 
12.0 
7.0 
8.4 

26.7 
43.5 
83.0 

63.0 
62.6 

20.0 
20.0 


1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  B.  A.  I.  Cir.  36. 

2  The  moisture  of  whole  and  skimmed-milk  powder  commercially  is  about  2 
per  cent. 


APPENDIX 


275 


Table  XL  —  Standards  of  Butter-Fat  and  Limit  of 
Moisture  in  Butter  in  Various  Countries 

(Various  Sources) 


Country 

Butter-Fat 

(MiN.) 

Per  cent. 

Moisture 

(Max.) 

Per  cent. 

82.0 
80.0 
82.0 
82.0 

82.0 

80.0 
82.0 

82.0 

82  "5 

16  0 

Australia  .     . 
Victoria    .     . 
West  Australia 

.... 

. 

16.0 
15.0 
15.0 
16  0 

Sweden 

Italy 

Russia 

16.0 
16  0 

Germany: 

Salted  .     .     . 

Unsalted  .     . 
Finland    .     .     . 
Switzerland  (six 
Denmark 

cantons)    . 

16.0 
18.0 
16.0 
15.0 
16  0 

United  States 

(0 

1  Below  16. 

276 


APPENDIX 


Table  XLI  —  Weight  of  Milk  and  Cream,  with  Varying 
Percentage  of  Fat-Content  at  68°  F. 

(Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  98) 


Product 

Fat 
Content 

Weight 

PER 

Gallon 

Per  Cent 
BY  Weight 

Pounds 

ftL-im    milk"                                                             

0.02 

3.00 

3.5 

4.0 

5.0 

6.0 

10.0 

12.0 

15.0 

20.0 

25.0 

35.0 

40.0 

8.63 

Whnlp  milk                             

8.60 

8.59 

<i           ». 

8.58 

.<           .. 

8.58 

.. 

8.57 

Modified  milk 

8.53 
8.50 

8.47 

.. 

8.43 

.. 

8.39 

.. 

8.31 

.. 

8.28 

Milk  is  generally  figured  at  8.6  poundd  and  cream  (18  to  20  per  cent  fat)  at  8.4 
pounds  a  gallon. 


APPENDIX 


277 


Table  XLII  —  Number  of  Dairy  Cows  and  Other  Cattle 
ON  Farms  in  the  United  States  from  1840  to  1922 

(Census  Bureau  and  Bureau  of  Markets  and  Crop 

Estimates) 


Milk  Cows 

Other 

Milk  Cows 

Other 

Year 

ON  Farms  ^ 

Cattle 

Year 

ON  Farms  ^ 

Cattle 

1840  2 

4,837,043 

10,171,586 

1911  3 

20,823,000 

39,679,000 

1850  2 

6,385,094 

11,393,813 

1912  3 

20,699,000 

37,260,000 

1860  2 

8,585,735 

17,034,284 

1913  3 

20,497,000 

36,030,000 

1914  3 

20,737,000 

35,855,000 

1870  2 

8,935,332 

13,566,005 

1915  3 

21,262,000 

37,067,000 

1880  2 

12,443,120 

22,488,550 

1890  2 

16,511,950 

33,734,128 

1916  3 

22,108,000 

39,812,000 

1900  2 

17,135,633 

50,083,777 

1917  3 

22,894,000 

41,689,000 

1910  2 

20,125,432 

41,178,434 

1918  3 

23,310,000 

44,112,000 

1919  3 

23,455.000 

45,085,000 

1920  2 

5  19,671,777 

47,139,059 

1920  3 

23,722,000 

43,398,000 

1921  3 

23,594,000 

41,993,000 

1922  * 

24.028,000 

41,324,000 

1  The  number  of  cows  within  towns  and  villages  amounts  to  2.000.000. 

2  Census.     The  census  report  figures  are  for  June  1,  except  for  1920,  which  is 
for  April  15;  and  1920,  which  was  for  January  1. 

3  Estimates,  January  1. 
^  Preliminary. 

5  Dairy  breeds  only. 


Table  XLIII  —  Total  Milk  Production  in  the 
United  States 


(Bureau  of  the  Census) 


Milk 

Year 

Production 
Gallons 

Remarks 

1869 

235,500,599 

Sold  from  farms 

1879 

530,129,755 

"         "          " 

1889 

5,209,125,567 

"         "          " 

1899 

7.728,583,349 

Including  milk  from  town  cows 

1909 

7,466,406,384 

Estimate  by  Bureau  of  the  Census 

1919 

7.805,143.792 

"    "         " 

278  APPENDIX 

Table  XLIV  —  Estimates  of  Production  and  Uses  of  Milk 
IN  THE  United  States 

(Dairy  Division,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  and  Bureau 
OF  Markets  and  Crop  Estimates) 

(Million  pounds— 000,000  omitted) 


1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Product 

Lbs. 

Per 
Ct. 

Lbs. 

Per 
Ct. 

Lbs. 

Per 
Ct. 

Lbs. 

Per 
Ct. 

Total  production     . 

84,612 

100 

87,906 

100 

90.058 

100 

20.4 
16.0 
4.7 
5.3 

3.8 

.2 

42.9 

3  9 

2.8 

89,657 

18,135 

14,175 

3,624 

3,945 

3,575 

222 

39,090 

4,202 

2,689 

100 

Creamery  butter 
Farm  butter 
Cheese       .     . 
Condensed  milk 
Ice  cream 
Other  products 
Household  use 
Fed  to  calves 
Waste  or  loss 

^ 

34,664 

4.200 
2.438 
3.150 

36.500 
3,660 

41 

5 
2.9 
3.7 

43;i 
4.3 

5  16,800 

I  14.910 

4.000 

4.000 

3,300 

50 

38.900 

3,748 

2,198 

19.1 

16.9 

4.5 

4.5 

3.8 

.1 

44.3 

4.3 

2.5 

18,375 
14,385 
4,200 
4,813 
3,450 
216 
38,619 
3,500 
2,500 

20.2 
15.8 
4.0 

Xi 

0.2 
43.6 

Table  XLV  —  Production  and  Exportation  of  Renovated 
Butter,  by  Years 

(Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue  and  Dairy  Division,  Bureau 
OF  Animal  Industry) 


Year 

Fac- 

Produc- 

Exports 

Year 
Ended 

Fac- 

Produc- 

Exports 

Ended 

tion 

tion 

June  30 

Pounds 

Pounds 

June  30 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1902 

55 

No  record 

No  record 

1912 

39 

46,387,398 

952,516 

1903 

81 

54,658,790 

1,312,000 

1913 

39 

38,354,762 

75,037 

1904 

77 

54,171,183 

3,118,018 

1914 

34 

32,470,030 

674,780 

1905 

78 

60,029,421 

3.864,146 

1915 

29 

39,056,180 

1.918.015 

1906 

64 

53,549,900 

11.005.537 

1916 

28 

34,514,527 

133,300 

1907 

51 

62.965,613 

5.538.410 

1917 

22 

27,507,982 

635.038 

1908 

49 

50,479,489 

1,271.610 

1918 

19 

19,270,933 

17.340 

1909 

49 

47,345,361 

1.115.288 

1919 

15 

17,358,718 

41,200 

1910 

42 

47,433,575 

41.850 

1920 

11 

9,735,214 

8,110 

1911 

45 

39,292,591 

118.890 

1921 

11 

6,099,110 

4,055 

1  Total  number  of  factories  at  end  of  fiscal  year. 

Production  is  taken  from  reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue;  and  exports 
are  taken  from  the  reports  of  inspectors  of  the  Dairy  Division,  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry,  Department  of  Agriculture. 


APPENDIX 


279 


Table  XL VI  —  Butter   Made   During   1919   and   1920  in 
Factories  in  the  United  States,  by  States 

(Bureau  of  Markets  and  Crop  Estimates) 


State 


Alabama     .     .     .     . 

Arizona 

Arkansas     .     .     .     . 

California    .     .     .     . 

Colorado     .... 

Connecticut 

Delaware     .... 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho      

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  .... 
Louisiana    .... 

Maine 

Maryland  .... 
Massachusetts  .  . 
Michigan  .... 
Minnesota  .... 
Mississippi  .... 
Missouri  .... 
Montana  .... 
Nebraska    .... 

Nevada  

New  Hampshire  .  . 
New  Jersey 
New  Mexico  .  .  . 
New  York  .... 
North  Carolina  .  , 
North  Dakota      .     . 

Ohio        

Oklahoma   .... 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  .     . 


Creamery  Butter 


1919 
Pounds 


696,215 
1,000,118 
363,384 
61,795,295 
13,144,464 
929,551 
253,286 
5,375 
16,755 
315,802 
4,514,263 
44,621,358 
44,658,534 
87,914,633 
35,642,291 
5,321,193 
46,409 
1,140,850 
315,305 
2,849,270 
45,206,770 
130,785,598 
2,476,787 
38,411,403 
5,389,032 
60,467,056 
1,725,494 
397,198 
178,796 
5,673 
13,715,704 
829,286 
14,696,566 
60,573,159 
10,481,270 
14,431,827 
12,445,578 


1920 
Pounds 


398,000 
828,000 
345,000 
61,870,000 
12,979,000 
877,000 
350,000 
503,000 

7,000 
4,660,000 
41,051,000 
39,223,000 
84,290,000 
32,899,000 
7,875,000 
55,000 
727,000 
440,000 
3,198,000 
45,404,000 
120,297,000 
2,626,000 
35,228,000 
5,168,000 
56,661,000 
2,018,000 
300,000 
143,000 
6,000 
16,949,000 
832,000 
13,419,000 
65,594,000 
3,596,000 
14,288,000 
11,422,000 


280 


APPENDIX 


Table  XLVI  —  Continued 


State 


Creamery  Butter 


1919 
Pounds 


1920 
Pounds 


Rhode  Island  . 
South  Carolina 
South  Dakota 
Tennessee  .  . 
Texas  .  .  . 
Utah  .  .  . 
Vermont  .  . 
Virginia  .  .  . 
"Washington 
West  Virginia  . 
Wisconsin  .  . 
Wyoming    .     . 

Total    .     . 


65,392 

26,580 

17,478,570 

3,735,157 

8,288,644 

3,796,394 

10,676,538 

1,597,340 

18,486,591 

328,160 

85.054.334 

1,139,556 

868,124,806 


58,000 

16,000 

14,071,000 

5,903,000 

9,125,000 

3,567,000 

13,253,000 

2,210.000 

23,751.000 

367,000 

97,355,000 

875,000 

863,577,000 


Note. — A  few  reports  were  made  after  this  table  was  made. 


APPENDIX 


281 


Table  XLVII  —  Total  Production  of  Farm  and  Factory 

Butter  in  the  United  States 

(Census  Bureau  and  Bureau  of  Markets  and  Crop 

Estimates) 


Year 

Creamery 

AND  Whey 

Butter 

Pounds 

Farm-made 
Butter 

Pounds 

Total 
Butter 

Pounds 

1849  c      .... 

313,345,306 
459,681,372 
514,092,683 
777,250,287 
1,024,223,468 
1,071,745,127 

994,650'.610 

313,345.306 
459.681.372 
514,092,683 
806,672,071 
1.205.508.384 
1,492,699.143 

1859  c 

1869  c 

1879  c 
1889  c 
1899  c 
1904  c 

29,421,784 
181,284,916 
420,954,016 
531,478,141 
627.145,865 
786,003,489 
760,030,573 
743,895,068 
822,718,916 

1  873,907,132 
938,505,382 

1  866,662,978 

1909  c 
1914  c 

1,621.796.475 

1916  m 

1917  m 

1918  m 

1919  m 

1919  c 

1920  m 

707,666,492 

1,646.171.874 







(c  =  census,     m  =  markets) 

1  Whey  butter  included  in  Bureau  of  Markets  reports  for  1918.  1919.  and  1920. 
Production  of  whey  butter  in  1918.  5,510.213;  1919,  5,597,308;  1920.  3,085,978. 

Table  XLVIII  —  Total    Number    of   Creameries    in    the 

United  States 

(Dairy  Division,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry) 


Number 

Number 

Number 

Year 

of  Cream- 

Year 

OF  Cream- 

Year 

OF  Cream- 

eries 

eries 

eries 

1908 

5.431 

1913 

4,859 

1918 

1  4.000 

1909 

5,123 

1914 

4,637 

1919 

1  4,000 

1910 

5,030 

1915 

4,518 

1920 

1  3,500 

1911 

4,838 

1916 

5,821 

1912 

4,751 

1917 

1  4,000 

>  The  Dairy  Division  record  of  the  number  of  creameries  was  discontinued  with 
the  year  1916.     The  later  figures  are  estimated  by  the  Bureau  of  Markets. 


282 


APPENDIX 


Table  XLIX  —  Creamery  Butter  in  Storage  on  the  First 
OF  Each  Month 


(Bureau    of    Markets    and    Crop    Estimates. 
Pounds  —  000  Omitted) 


Thousand 


Month 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

Pound 

i     Pounds 

Pounds 
46,134 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Jan. .     . 

48,977 

50,726 

43,910 

53,737 

58,682 

Feb.. 

31,139 

30,474 

26,618 

36,777 

38,359 

41,486 

March 

15,033 

16,9.52 

18,808 

24,191 

22,568 

27,103 

April 

3,346 

6,805 

14,629 

11,909 

12,555 

14,732 

May 

1,082 

3,607 

9,.536 

9,659 

7,554 

7,712 

June 

7,017 

9,9.53 

12,698 

29,435 

12,872 

21.682 

Julv. 

53,863 

49.982 

49,140 

90,158 

.52,526 

62,168 

Aug. 

68.57J 

J       102,.537 

88,992 

88,305 

123,.546 

101,4.55 

82.838 

Sept. 

101,66i 

I       105,836 

108,179 

99,334 

131,388 

115,5.58 

92,396 

Oct.. 

99,451 

1       100,522 

109,154 

87,883 

121,816 

113,385 

90,123 

Nov. 

92,71( 

1         85,260 

100,115 

80.874 

100,474 

101,778 

77,893 

Dec.  . 

71,84< 

)         67,292 

79,928 

65,111 

73,654 

79,7.50 

65.138 

Note. — Cold  storage  in  connection  with  butter  in  this  table  means  the  holding 
of  butter  at  a  temperature  of  45°  F.  or  less  for  a  period  of  at  least  thirty  days. 


APPENDIX 


283 


Table  L  —  Receipts  of  Butter  on  New  York,  Chicago, 
AND  San  Francisco  Markets 

(Trade  Journals  and  Bureau  of  Markets  and  Crop 
Estimates  2) 


Year 

New  York 
Pounds  ^ 

Chicago 
Pounds  ^ 

San 

Francisco 

Pounds 

1865 

36,428,160 
33,178,380 
89,640,900 
110,622,120 
119,932,440 
144,582,960 
131,477,880 
139,469,294 
141,176,002 
146,874,184 
154,176,822 
165,044,980 
176,939,340 
155,760,540 
168,276,000 
226,698,000 
164,608,000 
212,948,000 

1870 

1880           

8  844  900 

1890 

1900 

1905 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921 

86,677,560 
105,179,640 
184,880,160 
189,289,320 
154,075,560 
145,348,080 
152,353,920 
180,303,840 
169,643,400 
169,078,140 
143,982,120 
185,779,000 
176,746,000 
193,591,000 

15,234,145 
17,936,782 
13,934,200 
19,033,600 
23,548,850 
23,905,100 
22,580,950 
28,396,200 
27,694,300 
24,915,500 
22,946,900 
22,031,000 
23,566,000 
25,566,000 

Estimated  at  60  pounds  a  tub. 


2  Bureau   reports   began  in   1919. 


284 


APPENDIX 


Table  LI  —  Imports  and  Exports  of  Butter 
(Commerce  axd  Navigation  Reports;  YB) 


Year  Ended 

General 

Imports 

Domestic  Exports 

June  30 

Pounds 

Value 

Pounds 

Value 

1851      .... 

479,180 

$      37,536 

3,994,542 

8      516,812 

1860 

3,278,967 

506,185 

7,640,914 

1,144,321 

1870 

4,089,038 

832,829 

2,019,288 

592,229 

1880 

487,120 

95,122 

39,236,658 

6,690,687 

1890 

75,521 

13,679 

29,748,042 

4,187,489 

1900 

49,791 

9,769 

18,266,371 

3,143,509 

1910 

1,360,245 

298,023 

3,140,545 

785,771 

1911 

1,007,826 

247,961 

4,877,797 

1 ,059,432 

1912 

1,025,668 

237,154 

6,092,2.35 

1,468,432 

1913 

1,162,253 

304,090 

3,585,600 

872,804 

1914 

7,842,022 

1,753,461 

3,693,597 

877,453 

1915 

3,828,227 

977,262 

9,850,704 

2,392,480 

1916 

712,998 

212,370 

13,487,481 

3,590,105 

1917 

523,573 

192,767 

26,835,092 

8,749,170 

1918 

1,805,925 

619,303 

17,735,966 

6,852,727 

1919 

4,131,469 

1,869,132 

33,739,960 

15,843,522 

1920 

20,770,959 

10,916,770 

27,155,834 

15,491,682 

1920  1 

37,454,172 

18,646,456 

17,487,735 

10,142,403 

1921  1 

18,558,388 

7,392,247 

8,014,737 

3,269,609 

1  Year  ended  Dec.  31.     The  Commerce  and  Navigation  Reports  are  now  made 
by  years  ending  Dec.  31. 


APPENDIX 


285 


Table  LII  —  Production  and  Exportation  of 
Oleomargarine  for  the  United  States 

(Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue) 


E^CPORTA- 

] 

Exporta- 

Year 

Production 

TION 

Year 

Production 

tion 

Ended 

Ended 

Jan.  30 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Jan.  30 

Pounds 

Pounds 

18S7 

21,513,537 

834,574 

1914 

144,021,276 

2,143,702 

1890 

32,324,032 

2,535,926 

1915 

145,810,048 

3,112,528 

1900 

107,045,028 

4,256,067 

1916 

152,509,913 

2,587,689 

1905 

51,987,330 

2,543,433 

1917 

233,170,111 

2,894,266 

1910 

141,862,280 

2,864,770 

1918 

326,528,839 

2,485,779 

1911 

121,162,795 

3,146,094 

1919 

359,216,571 

10,227,702 

1912 

128,601,053 

3,150,282 

1920 

491,279,512 

10,335,445 

1913 

145,227,862 

2,477,659 

1921 

281,081,514 

3,494,683 

The  table  includes  colored  and  uncolored  oleomargarine.  No  imports  have  been 
noted  in  reports. 

The  Bureau  of  Internal  Revenue  is  required  to  keep  an  accurate  account  of 
production  and  exportation  of  oleomargarine;  however,  the  exportation  figures  are 
generally  much  lower  than  the  figures  reported  by  the  Department  of  Commerce. 


Table  LIII  —  Balance  of  Butter,  Cheese,  and  Condensed 
Milk,  Taken  Separately 

(From  Department  of  Commerce  Reports) 

(Expressed  in  Terms  of  Whole  Milk) 


Year 

Butter 

Cheese 

Condensed  Milk  » 

Ended 
June  30 

Imports 
Pounds 

Exports 
Pounds 

Imports 
Pounds 

E.XPORTS 

Pounds 

Imports 
Pounds 

Exports 
Pounds 

1913.     . 

50.556,807 

458,508,440 
620,698,920 

36,869,685 

1914. 

85,890,653 

3,144,991 

1915. 

129,251,262 
268,428,678 
552,536,964 
334,530,861 
525,779,457 

72,657,890 
129,737,640 
513,641,470 
344,916,730 

28,275,170 
2,975,940 

9,305,595 

1916. 

353,510,485 

1917 

599,364,492 

1918. 

1,249,557,753 

1919  2 



2,089,180,437 

1920  2 

419,295,177 

968,305,505 

J  Condensed  milk  includes  condensed  cream,  condensed  skim  milk,  and  evap- 
orated milk.    The  figures  for  1920  are  preliminary  and  subject  to  slight  change. 
2  Year  ended  Dec.  31. 


286 


APPENDIX 


Table  LIV  —  Pan-American  Countries  —  Imports  and 
Exports  of  Butter 

(Commerce  and  Navigation  Reports) 


Country 

Year 

Imports 
Pounds 

Exports 
Pounds 

Argentina 

Bolivia         

1919 
1913 
1919 
1913 
1915 
1916 
1915 
1917 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1915 
1916 
1916 
1916 
1911 
1915 

114,690 

42,421 

495,614 

314,144 

36,909 

24,486 

1,701,254 

975 

16,883 

426,200 

101,516 

667,149 

55,756 

621,527 

9,996 

50,936 

56,264 

5,533 

13,440 

568,762 

39,609,970 

Brazil •.     . 

British  Guiana 

Chile 

Colombia  ^ 

2,844 

Cuba 

Ecuador  ^ 

Guatemala  ^ 

Haiti  1 

Honduras  ^ 

Panama  ^ 

Paraguay               ... 

Peru  1                 

Santo  Domingo  ^ 

Venezuela 

220 

United  States  trade  only, 


APPENDIX 


287 


Table  LV  —  Argentina  —  Production  and  Consumption  of 
Factory  Butter 

(Argentine  Yearbook,  Estadistica  Agricola) 


Year 

Butter 

Production 

Pounds 

Per  Capita 

Consumption 
Pounds 

1903 

19,477,924 

19,475,371 
17,733,305 
14,832,672 
15,978,170 
15,766,680 
16,617,131 
17,427,498 
20,849,689 
22,482,506 
20,518,984 
22,367,645 
24,826,000 
33,404,099 
53,924,516 
1  56,722,973 

1.53 

i.35 
1.34 
1.31 
1.25 
1.02 
1.43 
1.92 
1.64 
1.77 
1.57 
1.47 
1.48 
1.41 
1.44 
1.42 

1904 

1905 

1906  .... 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1  Preliminary 

figures. 

288 


APPENDIX 


Table  LVI  —  Argektina  —  Imports  and  Exports  of 
Butter 

(Argentine  Yearbook,  Estadistica  Agricola) 


Year 


1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 
1920 


Imports 
Pounds 


103,001 
240,777 


1,375 
150.175 


798 
705 
805 
249 
9,921 


Exports 
Pounds 


8,721 


6,341,589 

3,077,652 

8,105,747 

8,342,340 

7,676,417 

10,191,866 

12,502,286 

21,671,558 

41,821,262 

44,863,610 

41,249,486 


Special  report  to  Bureau  of  Markets  and  Crop  Estimates. 


APPENDIX 


289 


Table  LVII  —  Australia  —  Production  of  Dairy  Products 
(Yearbook  and  Bulletin  of  Production) 


Total  Milk 
Produced 
Gallons 

Butter 

Year 

Factory 
Pounds 

Farm 
Pounds 

Total 
Pounds 

1901  .... 

101,671,066 

1902  . 

1903. 

100,332,242 
140,255,208 

1904. 

1905. 
1906. 
1907. 

140,898,726 

475,800,552 

159,934,617 
156,380,670 
145,317,357 

1908. 

447,509,376 

129,157,191 

16,160,166 

1909  . 

481,092,361 

136,007,354 

18,265,898 

154,273,252 

1910  . 

572,998,277 

174,227,684 

18,984,225 

193,211,909 

1911  . 

594,726,964 

195,228,256 

16,345,489 

211,573,745 

1912  . 

555,524,508 

171,042,044 

16,152,117 

187,194,161 

1913  . 

583,785,215 

181,386,305 

17,371,933 

198,758,238 

1914  . 

571,150,263 

178,778,836 

15,191,576 

193,970,412 

1915  . 

434,767,460 

121,664,559 

16,007,754 

137,672,313 

1916. 

549,684,701 

165,038,927 

17,431,851 

182,470,778 

1917.     . 

607,362,725 

183,301,056 

17,195,958 

200,497,014 

1918  .     . 
1919.     . 

558,369,526 

165,241,772 

16,560,903 

181,802,675 
165,468,791 

i 

290 


APPENDIX 


Table  LVIII  —  Australia  —  Exports  of  Butter 
(Tr-\de  Customs  axd  Excise  Revexue) 


Year 

Butter 
Pounds 

1899 

2,363,088 

1890             

2  976  848 

1899 

13,608,224 

1901 

34,536,277 

1905 

55,904,151 

1910                                  .     . 

87  894  943 

1911        .          

101,722,136 

1912 

66,679,120 

1913 

75,795,642 

1914 

1915  ^ 

54,021,523 

1916                             .     .     . 

16  722  010 

1917             .          

75,840  568 

1918                   

72,277,526 

1919  .     .          

41,114,764 

1920 

92,420,800 

1  Calendar  year  from  1899  to  1913,  inclusive;  then  changed  to  6scal  year  ended 
June  30.     No  figures  for  the  year  1914. 


Table  LIX  —  Canada  —  Production  of  Butter 

(Dairy   and   Cold   Storage   Commissioxer's   Reports,   and 
Yearbooks) 


Year 

Farm  Butter 
Pounds 

Factory  Butter 
Pounds 

1871 

74.190,584 
102,545,169 
111,577,210 
105,343,076 
137,110,200 

1881                     

1891                

1901 

36,066,739 

1911     .                -     

64,698,165 

1915    . 

83,991,453 

1916    . 

82,564,130 

1917  . 

1918  . 

87,526,939 
93,266,876 

1919  . 

1920  . 

1  125,000,000 
1  125,000,000 

101,554,131 
111,691,718 

Farm  butter  estimated  by  Canadian  officials. 


APPENDIX 


291 


Table  LX  —  Canada  —  Imports  and  Exports  of  Butter 

(Trade  and  Commerce  Reports  and  Bulletin  in  Commercial 
Series  No.  1) 


Fiscal  Year 

Imports 
Pounds 

Exports 
Pounds 

1870  1      

83,728 

126,848 

381,329 

1,175,301 

393,582 

1,227,390 

3,874,587 

7,989,269 

7,317,259 

6,822,540 

4,309,831 

997,335 

434,049 

1,934,062 

397,955 

3,741,628 

12,260,887 

18,535,362 

1,951,585 

25.259,737 

4,615.380 

3.142,682 

8,844,402 

828,323 

1,228.753 

2,724,913 

3,441,183 

7,990.435 

4.926.154 

13.659.157 

17.612,605 

9,739,414 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910  ■' 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

1921    .     .     . 

1  1870  to  1900,  year  ended  June  30.     2  1910  to  1920.  year  ended  Mar.  3L 


Table  LXI  —  Denmark  —  Imports  and  Exports  of  Butter 
{Denmarks  Vareindforsel  og  udforsel;  Statistisk  Tahelvaerk;  YB) 


Year 

Imports 
Pounds 

Exports 
Pounds 

Year 

Imports 
Pounds 

Exports 
Pounds 

1866 
1870 

Not  given 

10,710,194 

13,804,782 

27,057,726 

98,167.019 

131.100.071 

195.052.426 

197.481.675 

187.755.000 

200,670.408 

1914 
1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 
1919 
1920 
1921 

3,054,473 

686,733 

190,698 

882 

220 

210,084,491 
223.964,432 

1880 

211  090  450 

1890 
1900 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 

^  20.549.573 
1  46,700.515 
6,240.561 
6,026,935 
5.966,000 
6.242,104 

135,501,550 

32,305,547 

80,908,820 

2  165,345,000 

-  199,584,863 

'  Imports  for  1890  and  1900  were  "general." 
'special  trade  only." 
2  Semi-official,  preliminary. 


From  1910  the  imports  were  for 


292 


APPENDIX 


Table  LXII  —  France  —  Imports  and  Exports  of  Butter 
(Tableau  General  du  Commerce  de  la  France;  YB) 


Imports 

Exports 

\ear 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1850 

3,493,996 

4,870,497 

1860 

3,926,503 

26,073,317 

1870 

6,635,326 

42,300,974 

1880 

15,641,716 

68,484,843 

1890 

14,164,738 

89,784,546 

1900 

13,559,262 

44,658,761 

1910 

10,656,375 

48,427,787 

1911 

19,939,064 

28,221,305 

1912 

14,179,326 

37,571,675 

1913 

13,033,816 

38,359,820 

1914 

13,654,631 

44,619,000 

1915 

1,710,549 

50,336,088 

1916 

625,004 

18,936,632 

1917 

742,288 

6,728,439 

1918 

1,983,693 

2,619,506 

1919 

12,752,288 

1,119,055 

1920 

4.812,000 

4,812,000 

Table  LXIII  —  Germany  —  Imports  and  Exports  of 
Butter 

{Auswdrtiger  Handel  Deutschland  and  Bul.   103,  Bureau  of 
Statistics;  YB) 


Imports 

Exports 

Year 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1897  .    . 

19,936,946 

7,915,396 

1900  .     . 

34,647,494 

5,565,072 

1910.     . 

92,815,865 

398,592 

1911.    . 

123,619,418 

554,898 

1912.     . 

122,472,143 

482,000 

1913.    . 

119,576,189 

602,000 

1914  .     . 

1920  1    . 

17,236,965 

524,695 

Preliminary. 


APPENDIX 


293 


Table  LXIV  —  Italy  —  Imports  and  Exports  of  Butter 
{Movimento  Cmnmerciale,  Italy;  YB) 


Imports 

Exports 

Year 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1871                                   

287,700 
509,273 
705,913 
429,236 

2,213,198 

1880              

•  5,183,896 

1890 

6,709,921 

1900 

14,136,777 

1910 

345,020 

8,295,469 

1911         

2,516,771 
899,256 

8,147,320 

1912 

8,842,650 

1913 

909,838 

6,034,211 

1914 

194,005 

9,310,026 

1915 

96,561 

7,488,365 

1916 

135,803 

792,113 

1917 

126,324 

171,518 

1918 

73,193 

108,687 

1919 

1,880,087 

50,926 

1920 

3,103,856 

95,680 

Table  LXV  —  Japan  —  Quantity  of  Butter  Made  in 
Factories 

(Japanese  Yearbook) 


Year 

Butter 
Pounds 

1915 

682,282 

1916 

897,084 

1917               .     .          

1,428,258 

1918 

1919 

1,302,749 
1,203,253 

294 


APPENDIX 


Table  LXVI  —  Netherlands  —  Imports  axd  Exports  of 
Butter 

(Statistick  vati  den  in-uit-en  doorvoer;  YB) 


Imports 

Exports 

\ear 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1850 

231,890 

26,491,049 

1860 

1,572,043 

39,331,100 

1870 

6,861,284 

1  47,865,455 

1880 

2,759,718 

1  79,479,604 

1890 

8,834,868 

87,203,279 

1900 

1,634,102 

49,762,641 

1910 

4,491,879 

72,456,276 

1911 

6,038,399 

66,512,782 

1912 

4,636,273 

86,307,885 

1913 

5,529,137 

81,702,476 

1914 

3,880,444 

84,406,790 

1915         

904,693 

992,070 

52,339 

93,351,626 

1916         

78,997,431 

1917 

54,214,930 

1918 

42,782 

5,415,259 

1919 

614.753 

30,242,048 

1920 

130,675 

45,575,696 

1  Oleomargarine  and  butter  reported  together  from  1870  to  1889. 


APPENDIX 


295 


Table  LXVII  —  New  Zealand  —  Exports  of  Butter 

(Trade  and  Navigation  Reports,  Abstract  of  Statistics  of 
New  Zealand,  and  1915  Yearbook  of  New  Zealand; 
YB) 


Year  Ended  June  30 

Pounds 

1866 

25  984 

1870 

384,720 
304,304 
3,899,392 
19,329,296 
39,931,920 
33,867,344 
42,349,104 
41,692,896 
48,615,504 
47,056,128 
40,166,784 
28,492,464 
48,274,576 
38,731,602 
30,334,080 
71,531,040 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920  1 

1921  » 

1  Year  ended  July  3L 

Table  LXVIII  —  Russia  (Including  Siberia)  —  Production 
OF  Butter 

(Reports  of  Railroads;  Enquete  siir  V Industrie,  Paris) 


Year 

.  Pounds 

1901-1904  1 

1905-1908  1 

1909-1911  1 

1912 

190,810,300 
226,844,230 
275,286,240 
306,414  650 

1913 

326,253,150 

1917  2 

162,507,600 

1  Yearly  average. 

2  From  Russian  Chamber  of  Commerce  at  Paris  (Int.  Rev.  of  the  Sci.  and  Prac. 
of  Agric,  Rome,  July,  August,  September,  1919,  p.  1000). 


296 


APPENDIX 


Table  LXIX  —  Russia  (Including  Siberia)  —  Exports 
OF  Butter 

(Russian  Commerce  Reports;  YB) 


Year 

Pounds 

Year 

Pounds 

1860-1870  1 
1871-1875  1 
1876-1880  1 
1885-1888  I 
1894-1898  1 
1900    .     .     . 

6,842,479 

5,875,803    . 

6,694,592 

11,650,610 

14,896,910 

42,923,300 

124,365,658 

168,704,448 

160,770,972 

1913  . 

1914  . 

1915  . 

1916  . 

1917  . 

1918  . 

1919  . 

1920  . 

172,003,064 

118,996,623 

119,358,799 

2  21,668 

21,668 

1910   .     .     . 

1911    .     .     . 

1912    .     .     . 

Average  annual  export. 


-  Preliminary  figures. 


Table  LXX  —  South    Africa    (British) 

Butter 


Production    of 


(Reports   of   Secretary   of   Agriculture,   South   Africa) 


Year 

Pounds 

1913  .     . 

10,741,000 
10  682  000 

1914 

1915 

1916 

13,500,000 
16  013  557 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1  17,935,680 
1  21,748,160 

Preliminary  figures. 


APPENDIX 


297 


Table  LXXI  —  Sweden  —  Dairy  Products  in  Factories 

{Statistik  Arsbok) 


Milk  Delivered 

Number 

, 

Year 

TO  Dairies  ^ 

OF  Buri'ER 

Butter  Made 

Pounds 

Factories 

Pounds 

1890     .     .     . 

1,115,774,074 

1,562 

35,479,510 

1895 

1,634,582,991 

1,793 

54,953,356 

1900 

1, 856,  S9 1,758 

1,688 

57,570,964 

1905 

2,023,987,671 

1,575 

62,727,497 

1910 

2,533,570,352 

1,416 

72,616,094 

1913 

2,879,401,605 

1,650 

70,339,968 

1914 

2,766,911,890 

1,627 

72,615,115 

1915 

2,376,434,915 

1,663 

60,597,840 

1916 

2,509,339,653 

1,698 

62,264,518 

1917 

2,085,194,455 

1,762 

45,551,450 

1918 

1,289,521,246 

1,495 

23,454,739 

1919 

1, 560,534,92s 

1,450 

27,409,792 

'  The  term  "dairies"  is  used  throughout  Europe  for  factories  which  receive  milk 
and  cream  for  any  purpose;  but  generally  it  refers  to  butter  and  cheese  factories. 

Table  LXXII  —  Sweden  —  Imports  and  Exports  of  Butter 
(Swedish  Commerce  Reports,  Bidrag  till  Sveriges  Offidala;  YB) 


Year 

Imports 
Pounds 

Exports 
Pounds 

1861-1865  ^ 

2,352,000 

3,348,000 

5,992,000 

3,920,000 

1,096,678 

205,352 

343,029 

273,000 

432,071 

188,879 

29,848 

61,059 

15,756,261 

11,425,615 

13,846,436 

16,940,874 

369,600 

1871-1875  1 

6  955  000 

1881-1885  1 

17  684  000 

1890 

33,163  200 

1900 

42,246,271 
47  949  356 

1910 

1911 

48,888,521 

46,818,477 

43,329,909 

41,941,296 

41,532,093 

28,703,513 

3,117 

3,302 

76,233 

53,417 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920  ~ 

Average. 


2  Preliminary  figures. 


298 


APPENDIX 


Table  LXXIII  —  Switzerland  —  Butter  Manufactured 
(Swiss  Yearbook) 


Year 

Pounds 

1911         

31,525,780 

1912 

35,494,060 

1913 

37,257,740 

1914 

33,478,200 

1915              

36  596  360 

1916 

1917 

37,037,280 
30,864,400 

1918 

28,880,260 

Table  LXXIV  —  Switzerland  —  Imports  and  Exports  of 

Butter 

(Swiss  Commerce  Reports,  YB) 


Year 

Imports 
Pounds 

Exports 
Pounds 

1885           

2,621,931 

3,556,681 

4,249,146 

11,062,683 

12,097,742 

11,930,925 

11,155,906 

8,900,411 

5,699,773 

946,214 

369,491 

54,454 

13,250,307 

18,253,647 

1890 

1900                                .     .          .     . 

217  594 

1910                 

172  400 

1911                      

193,343 

1912           

203,705 

1913 

192,682 

1914 

217,374 

1915 

148,370 

1916 

2,646 

1917 

220 

1918                           

1919                 

440 

1920                

APPENDIX 


299 


Table  LXXV  —  United  Kingdom  —  Imports  and  Exports 
OF  Butter 

(Trade  and  Navigation  Reports;  YB) 


General 

Domestic 

General 

Domestic 

Year 

Imports 

Exports 

Year 

Imports 

Exports 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

1850 

35,823,648 

6,791,568 

1913 

463,571,136 

1,220,240 

1860 

94,092,544 

14,039,424 

1914 

446,230,848 

1,222,256 

1870 

129,831,520 

6,443,136 

1915 

431,631,760 

1,178,352 

1880 

'  260,546,160 

3,517,696 

1916 

243,646.480 

979,664 

1890 

227,104,304 

2,745,120 

1917 

202,329,792 

264,208 

1900 

378,363,792 

1,177,120 

1918 

176,691,536 

197,232 

1910 

484,460,368 

1,035,328 

1919 

■  174.742,848 

252,752 

1911 

481,901,504 

1,335,936 

1920 

2  192,230,528 

362,544 

1912 

448,577,808 

1.270,304 

1921 

2  394,687,776 

1,103,200 

Including  margarine  for  1880. 


Preliminary  figures. 


PROPERTY  imSARf 

N.  C.  Siaii  Cdkge 


INDEX 


Acidity  in  butter,  163. 

neutralizing,  84,  87,  267. 

neutralizing  reaction,  267. 

test,  chemistry  of,  261. 

test  of  milk  or  cream,  260. 
Alvord,  Henry  E.,  126. 

Babcock,  S.  M.,  87. 
Babcock  test,  236. 

when  developed,  5. 
Bacteria,  and  how  carried,  35. 

conditions  of  growth,  40. 

growth    of,     at     different     tem- 
peratures, 183. 

in  butter,  177. 

pathogenic,  in  butter,  97. 

pathogenic,  in  margarine,  98. 

pathogenic,  in  skimmed-milk,  99. 
Baker,  G.  D.,  179. 
Barnhart,   Jesse   M.,   8,    143,    252, 

255,  257. 
Berg,  W.  N.,  93,  95,  180. 
Body,  when  scoring,  192. 
Bowen,  John  T.,  106. 
Branding  inspected  butter,  198. 
Breed,  Robert  S.,  99,  100. 
Briscoe,  Chas.  F.,  96,  98. 
Brown,  C.  A.,  Jr.,  169. 
Brown,  C.  W.,  166,  170,  172,  179, 

181,  182. 
Bryant,  Ruth,  177. 
Bull,  William,  3. 
Burrill,  D.  H.,  125. 
Butter,  acidity,  163. 

amount  in  tub,  201. 

balance  of,  285. 

branding  inspected,  198. 

centralizer,  definition,  229. 

comparison  with  margarine,  17. 

composition,  7. 

consumption    in    various    coun- 
tries,  273,   287. 


utter,  creamery,  definition,  229. 
creamery,   manufactured  in   dif- 
ferent states,  6,  279,  281. 
dairy,  definition,  229. 
dairy,  manufactured  in  different 

states,  6,  281. 
dealer,  definition,  229. 
definition,  228. 
exports,  U.  S.,  5,  284. 

Argentina,  288, 

Australia,  290. 

Canada,  291. 

Denmark,  291. 

France,  292. 

Germany,  292. 

Italy,  293. 

Netherlands,  294. 

New  Zealand,  295. 

Pan-American  countries,  273. 

Russia,  296. 

Sweden,  297. 

Switzerland,  298. 

United  Kingdom,  299. 

Various  countries,  273. 
flavors,  160. 
food  value,  14. 

gathered  cream,  definition,  229 
grading,  188. 
imports,  U.  S.,  284. 

Argentina,  288. 

Australia,  290. 

Canada,  291. 

Denmark,  291. 

France,  292. 

Germany,  292. 

Italy,  293. 

Netherlands,  294. 

Pan-American  countries,  286. 

Sweden,  297. 

Switzerland,  298. 

United  Kingdom,  299. 
inspection  of,  198. 


301 


302 


INDEX 


Butter,  introduction  in  Europe  for 

food,  3. 
ladled,  216. 
ladled,  definition,  229. 
ladled,     method     of     manufac- 
ture, 218. 
moisture  test,  254. 
packing,  153. 
printing,  155. 
production  in  U.  S.,  5,  281. 

Argentina,  287. 

Australia,  289. 

Canada,  290. 

Russia,  295. 

South  Africa,  296. 

Sweden,  297. 

Switzerland,  298. 

various  countries,  273. 
ranch,  definition,  230. 
receipts,  283. 
renovated,  216. 
renovated  or  process,  definition, 

230. 
renovated,  export,  278. 

method  of  manufacture,  217. 

production  of,  278. 
salt  test,  257. 
sampling,  252. 
shipping  by  railroad,  206. 
shipping  by  water,  207. 
storage  of,  181. 
storage  first  of  month,  282. 
stored  for  many  years,  2. 
sweet,  definition,  230. 
sweet  cream,  definition,  231. 
testing,  253. 
trier,  231. 

used  as  an  ointment,  1. 
weighing  tub  on  the  market,  201. 
whey,  211. 

whey,  definition,  231. 
whole-milk,  definition,  231. 
Buttermilk,    artificial,   commercial, 

or  cultured,  definition,  231. 
definition,  231. 
sampling,  250. 
testing,   251. 

Carefulness,  27. 


Centralizer,  definition,  232. 
Cheese,  definition,  232. 

balance  of,  285. 
Cheesery  or  cheese  factory,   defi- 
nition, 232. 
Chemistry,  acidity  test,  261. 

of  salt  test,  259. 
Churn,  cleaning,  24. 

cleaning    a    musty    churn,     25. 
Churning,   effect  of  abnormal  mi- 
cro-organisms, 135. 

effect    of    amount    of    cream    in 
churn,  134. 

effect   of   condition   of  milk-fat, 
129. 

effect  of  milk-fat  globules,   133. 

effect  of  richness  of  cream,  128. 

effect  of  ripeness  of  cream,  128. 

effect  of  speed  of  churn,  135. 

effect  of  temperature,  126. 

factors  in,  126. 

history  of,  123. 

steps  in,  135. 
Churns,  large,  124. 

simple,  123. 
Color,  amount  to  use,  136. 

artificial,  149. 

faded,  152. 

how  to  add,  with  salt,  137. 

mottles,  149. 

natural,  148. 

when  scoring,  192. 
Commission  merchant,  232. 
Composite  samples,  237. 
Cooling,  effect  of  stirring,  46. 

milk,  methods,  44. 

milk,  reasons  for,  40. 

tanks,  44. 
Cooper,  W.  F.,  129. 
Cooper,  W.  H.,  95,  101,  102,  103. 
Cost,  effect  of  storage,  185. 
Cows,  number  of  in  U.  S.,  277. 
Cream,  acidity  test,  260. 

care  of,  35. 
Cream,  control  of  fat  content,  68. 

definition,  232. 

factors  affecting  test,  73. 

ripening,  108. 

ripening  in  a  creamery,  116. 


INDEX 


303 


Cream,  ripening  on  a  farm,  119. 

sampling,  244. 

separation,  52. 

testing,  248. 

weight  with  vary  fat,  276. 

when  ripe,  121. 
Creameries,  in  U.  S.,  281. 

size  of,  4. 
Creamery,  definition,  232. 

equipment,  29. 

first  one  built  in  U.  S.,  3. 

influence  of  building,  33. 

influence  of  surroundings,  33. 

operators,  28. 

poorly  arranged,  32. 

well-arranged,  30. 
Cuddie,  D.,  168. 
Curd,  amount  in  butter,  11. 

compo.sition  of,  11. 

Dairy,  definition,  232. 

school,  first  one  organized,  5. 

statistics,  272. 
Davis,  Brooke  J.,  93,  95,  168,  180. 
Davis,  Marguerite,  15,  16. 
Dean,  H.  H.,  175. 
Definition  of  terms,  228. 
Distributors'  margins,  208. 
Doane,  C.  P\,  212,  213. 
Dotterrer,  W.  D.,  99,  100. 

Eckles,  C.  H.,    10,   130,   131,   132, 

133,  134,  148,  172. 
Elgin,  market,  202. 
Enzymes  in  butter,  180. 
Ewing.  P.  v.,  129. 
Exchanges,  history  of,  194. 

Farrand.  Bell,  179. 
Farrell,  John  J.,  102,  103,  223. 
Farrington,  E.  H.,  95,  101,  211. 
Fat  loss  in  whey,  211. 

standard  in  butter,  275. 
Flavor,  basic,  160. 

effect  of  acidity  on  storage  but- 
ter, 174. 

effect  of  individuality  of  the  cow, 
172. 

effect  of  pa.steurizatioD,  171. 


Flavor,  effect  of  salt,  washing,  173 

fishy,  166. 

metallic,  168. 

rancid,  169. 

when  scoring,  191. 
Flavors,  absorbed,  160. 

acid,  163. 

developed,  161. 

hi.storj'  of  acidity,  164. 

of  butter,  160. 

salted  versus  unsalted,  163. 
Fleischmann,  8,  56,  57,  223. 
Freak,  G.  A.,  129. 
Frost,  W.  D.,  177. 
Frozen  milk  and  cream,  sampling, 
237. 

Gaessler,  W.  G.,  95,  101,  102,  103. 

Giltner,  W.,  179. 

Godfrey,  J.  H.,  95. 

Grading    butter,    history    of,    188. 

milk  and  cream,  84. 
Gray,  C.  E.,  166,  172,  176,  182. 
Growth-promoting  substances,   15. 
Guthrie,  E.  S.,  72,  143,  153,  154, 
169,   171,   173,    175,   254,  257. 

Hammer,  B.  W.,  95,  102,  103. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  150. 

Hastings,  E.  G.,  100. 

Haugen,  225. 

Hayward,  Harry,  1. 

Hepburn,    N.   W.,    143,    246,   247, 

252,  255,  257. 
History,  of  acidity,  164. 

of  butter,  1. 

of  churning,  123. 

of  exchanges,  195. 

of  grading  butter,  188. 

of  grading  milk  and  cream,  85. 

of  margarine,  220. 

of  neutralizing  acidity,  85. 

of  pasteurization,  90,  91,  92. 

of  printing,  155. 

of  separation,  55. 

of  starter,  109. 

of  starter  cans,  112. 
Holmes,  Geo.  K.,  185. 
Hosman,  D.  Fay,  152. 


304 


INDEX 


Homogenized  milk  or  cream,  defini- 
tion, 231. 

Hunziker,  O.  F.,  53,  93,  131,  132, 
133,  144,  246,  249,  152. 

Hutchinson,  Robert,  14. 

Inspection,   cost  of,   200. 

of  butter,  198. 
Inspector,  other  duties,  200. 

Jensen,  A.,  92. 
Jensen,  O.  A.,  174. 

Kent,  T.  L.,  241. 
Kieffer,  P.  H.,  170. 
Kiethley,  J.  R.,  167.  176,  182. 
Kirchner,  W.,  63,  64. 

Ladled  butter,  216. 

method  of  manufacture,  218. 
Ladling  butter  plant,  216. 
Larsen,  C,  56,  57,  165,  172,  174. 
Lazer,  H.,  98. 
Leach,  A.  E.,  10. 
Lee,  Carl  E.,  8,  95,  101,  143,  152, 

246,  247,  252,  255,  257. 
Lime,  amount  to  put  in  cream,  271. 

composition  of,  267. 

container,  269. 

preparation  of  mixture,  268. 
Lumsden,  Leslie  L.,  98. 
Lund,  T.  H.,  165. 

MacNeal,  W.  J.,  96,  98. 
Macnish,  James,  125. 
Margarine,  220. 

and  butter,  227. 

comparison  with  butter,  17. 

definition,  233. 

export,  285. 

history,  220. 

method  of  making  and  composi- 
tion, 220. 

production  of,  285. 

test,  226. 
Margins  of  distributors,  208. 
Market,  Elgin,  202. 

requirements,  203. 
Marketing,  188. 
Markets  by  the  U.  S.,  202. 
McCollum,  E.  v.,  15,  16,  17. 


McKay,  G.  L.,  56,  57,  87,  166,  172, 

174,  182. 
McMerney,  T.  J.,  41,  44,  46,  237, 

238,  248,  251. 
Melick,  C.  W.,  174. 
Mendel,  L.  B.,  15,  16,  17. 
Meyer,  H.  F.,  195,  201,  208. 
Meyers,  John  H.,  164. 
Michels,  John,  130. 
Milk,  acidity  test,  260. 

balance  of,  285. 

care  of,  35. 

definition,  233. 

fat,  composition  of,  8. 

definition,  233. 

plant,  definition,  234. 

solids  in  dairy  products,  274. 

total  production  in  U.  S.,  277. 

uses,  278. 

weight  with  vary  fat,  276. 

yield  of   cows   in  various   coun- 
tries, 272. 
Miller,  L.  F.,  165. 
Mills,  H.  C,  131,  132,  133,  144. 
Mohler,  John  R.,  96. 
Moisture,  control,  144. 

creamery    men    should    control, 
146. 

in  butter,  142. 

incorporation,   144. 

natural  amount  in  butter,    146. 

test  of  butter,  254. 

variation  in  butter,  143. 

various  countries,  275. 
Mortensen,  M.,  95,  101,  102,  103, 

106. 
Mottles,  149. 

Neatness,  27. 

Neutralizing  acidity  in  cream,  84, 

87,  88,  267. 
Neutralizing  reaction,  267. 

steps  in,  269. 
Norton,  R.  P.,  8,  11,  217. 
Nuttall,  W.  H.,  129. 

Operator,    essential    consideration, 

51. 
Osborne,  T.  B.,  15,  16,  17. 


INDEX 


305 


Over-run,  definition,  234. 
factors  that  affect,  147. 
in  the  creamerj',  147. 
on  the  farm,  147. 

Package,  preparation  of,  142, 

when  scoring,  193. 
Packages,  for  storage,  142. 
retail,  154. 

retail,  market  requirement,  204, 
wholesale,  153. 

wholesale,   market   requirement, 
203. 
Packing  butter,  141. 
Palmer,  Leroy  S.,  130,  131,  148. 
Parcel  post,  205. 
Pasteurization,  90. 

and  cooked  flavor,  102. 
comparison  of  holder  and   con- 
tinuous methods,  102,  103, 104. 
cost  of,  106. 
definition,  234. 

effect   on    buttermilk   test,    101. 
effect  on  flavor,  92. 
of  sour  cream,  105. 
of  thin  cream,  105. 
Pasteurizer,  operation  of,  102. 
Patrick,  G.  E.,  164,  175. 
Patron,  definition,  234. 
Pearson,  R.  A.,  233. 
Pickerill,  H.  M.,  154. 
Potteiger,  C.  R.,  95,  168. 
Potts,  A.  E.,  239. 
Potts,  R.  C,  195,  201,  208. 
Price,     determination     of,     196. 
effect  of  storage,  186. 
how  reported,  195. 
Prices,  butter  and  other  foods,  14. 

from  1840  to  1920,  197. 
Printing  butter,  155. 
proper  weight,  157. 
Protein,  composition  of,  12. 
Prucha,  M.  J.,  37. 

Rahn,  Otto,  155,  160,  170,  172,  179 

182. 
Raitt,  J.  A.,  143,  145. 
Rasmussen,  Fred,  147. 
Reakes,  C.  J.,  168. 


Receiver,  definition,  234. 
Reid,  A.  H.,  155. 
Reid,  H.  A.,  168. 
Renovated  butter,  216. 
export,  278. 

method  of  manufacture,  217. 
production,  278. 
raw  material,  216. 
Renovating  butter  plant,  216. 
Richmond,  H.  D.,  8. 
Ripening  cream,  demand  of  trade, 
121. 
in  a  creamery,  116. 
on  a  fami,  119. 

relation     of     temperature     and 
inoculation,  120. 
Ripening  temperatures,  120. 

when  cream  is  ripe,  121. 
Rogers,  L.  A.,  93,  95,  96,  153,  167, 

168,  176,  177,  178,  180,  182. 
Rosenau,  N.  J.,  90,  100,  177. 
Ross,  H.  E.,  41,  44,  46,  101,  143, 
237,  238,  249,  251,   254,  257, 
261. 
Russell,  H.  L.,  87,  90,  100,  101. 

Salt,  amount  in  butter,  11. 

amount  to  use,  141. 

blisters,  cause,  152. 

composition  of,  11. 

how  to  add,  to  butter,  140. 

test,  chemistry  of,  259. 

test  of  butter,  257. 

what  to  do  if  dissolves  slowly, 
140. 

when  scoring,  192. 
Sampling,  butter,  252. 

cream,  244. 

frozen  milk  and  cream,  237. 

skimmed-milk    and    buttermilk, 
250. 

sour  milk  and  cream,  237. 

whole  milk,  239. 
Sammis,  J.  L.,  152,  212. 
Sayre,  W.  S.,  179. 
Scalding  utensils,  21. 
Score-card,  190. 
Scoring  butter,  190. 
Scovill,  R.  I.,  244,  247. 


306 


INDEX 


Selling  butter,  207. 

cooperative,  208. 

methods  of  large  creameries,  207. 

methods  of  small  creameries,  207. 
Separation,  advantages  of  centrif- 
ugal method,  78. 

by  centrifugal  force,  55. 

by  gravity,  53. 

continuous,  56. 

eflBciency   of   different   methods, 
53. 

intermittent,  55. 

principle  of,  52. 
Separator,  factors  in  buying,  78,  79. 
Separator,  locatio.i  of,  80,   81,  82. 

when  first  sold  ii  U.  S.,  5. 
Separators,    the  operation    of,    67. 
Shaw,  R.  H.,  8,  10,   11,   131,    132, 

133,  134,  172,  180,  217. 
Shipping,  by  parcel  post,  205. 

by  railroad,  206. 

by  water,  207. 
Shiver,  F.  S.,  130. 
Shrinkage,  in  wholesale   packages, 

153. 
Skimmed-milk,    definition,    234. 

factors  affecting,  72-77. 

killing  pathogenic  bacteriain,  99. 

sampling,  250. 

testing,  251. 
Smith,  F.  H.,  129. 
Smith,  L.  M.,  166,   170,   172,   182. 
Sour   milk   and    cream,    sampling, 

237. 
Spitzer,  Geo.,   131,   132,    133,   144. 
Starter,  apparatus.  111. 

artificial,  111. 

cans,  history,  112. 

definition,  234. 

how  often  to  propagate,  115. 

kind  of  milk  for,  118. 

making  the  transfer,  118, 

natural,  110. 

steps  in  propagation,  112. 

when  first  sold  in  U.  S.,  5. 

when  to  use,  108. 
Sterilization,  definition,  234. 
Stewart,  R.  F.,  155. 
Stocking,  W.  A.,  Jr.,  37,  40. 


Storage,  buildings,  183. 

business,  183. 

cost,  185. 

effect  on  price,  186. 

home,  185. 

of  butter,  181. 

temperatures,  181. 

Storch  test,  265. 
Supplee,  G.  C.,  72. 

Taber,  W.  C.,  199. 
Test  ware,  cleaning,  26. 
Testing,  236. 

butter,  253. 

conveniences  for,  263. 

cream,  248. 

skimmed-milk    and    buttermilk, 
251. 

whole  milk,  242. 
Thom,  Chas.,  180. 
Thompson,  S.  C.,  8,  11,  167,  176, 

182. 
Thoroughly     scalding,     definition, 

234. 
Troy,  H.  C.,  14,  258. 

Utensils,   cleaning  and  care  of,   18. 
relation  to  clean  milk,  37. 

Valerius,  T.  L.,  126. 
Van  Slyke,  L.  L.,  150. 
Ventilation,  38. 

Washburn,  Henry  J.,  96. 

Washing  utensils,  19. 

Water,  amount  in  butter,  11. 

Weeter,  H.  M.,  37. 

Weighing  tub  butter  on  the  mar- 
ket, 201. 

Weigmann,  H.,  162. 

Wells,  C.  A.,  129. 

Whey,  fat  loss,  211. 

Whey  butter,  211. 
churning,  215. 
cost  of  manufacture,  212. 
manufacture  of,  214. 
marketing,  215. 

White,  B.  D.,  170. 

Whole  milk,  sampling,  239. 


INDEX 


307 


Whole  milk,  testing,  242. 
Wilder,  F.  W.,  221. 
Willmann,  J.,  91. 
Wilson,  James,  186. 
Wing,  H.  H.,  211,  212. 


Working  butter,  how  to  do  it,  141.    Wright,  R.  Patrick,  221,  227. 


Working  butter,  purpose  of, 

when  completed,  141. 
Wolff,  A.,  162. 
Woll,  F.  W.,  11. 
Workmanship,  31. 


141. 


